English & Its Closest Relatives, Part One
Old English, also called Anglo-Saxon, was formed from two or three Germanic dialects* taken to Britain in the mid 400s A.D. by elements of Germanic tribes from what is today northern Germany.** Modern linguists classify English and its closest relatives as being "West Germanic," a branch of the broader family of "Germanic languages,"*** which itself is a branch of the Indo European language family.
Originally, it is "assumed," I'd say with a good deal of certainty, that the Germanic tribal elements that founded England could understand one another, although they had spoken different dialects (variations) of Germanic, and more particularly of West Germanic. As many of the dialects of West Germanic and of Germanic, in general, developed further, they grew further apart in mutual intelligibility; that is, how much speakers of the respective dialects could understand one another. English then was influenced by the related North Germanic, as Old Norse (an old form of North Germanic) was carried to England by raiders and settlers, usually Danes, but also some Norwegians, who settled mainly in the northeastern part of England, and also in southern Scotland. All of the Germanic dialects were influenced to varying degrees by Latin at one time or another in two ways: the Roman domination of much of Europe gave various military and government terms to other peoples; and, the adoption of Christianity by the Romans, and the subsequent spread of Christianity throughout Europe (and elsewhere), provided a wide variety of words, not just religious, to other peoples, too, as Latin became the language of the Christian Church. English borrowed some Latin words early on, but it saw a more substantial borrowing from Latin in a roundabout way, as the Norman dialect of French was brought to England by the "Norman Conquest," in late1066 A.D. Old French was a Latin-based language, with Germanic influences from the Germanic tribe the Franks, and the Norman dialect (from the Normandy region) was somewhat different from the dialect of Paris and environs, and it had some North Germanic influences, as Norse raiders had settled in the area; thus giving their name to the region and its people (Northmen=Norman). In this case, the Norse speaking rulers adapted to the regional French dialect, but some Norse words (and "perhaps" some pronunciation) were picked up by the French dialect in the process. Their successful invasion of England brought Norman administration to the English speaking populace, and eventually, although after many word borrowings, Norman French was overwhelmed by English, but it was a gradual process.**** The word borrowings from the Normans, in particular, is what has come to differentiate English vocabulary from its Germanic relatives on the Continent, but the most commonly used English words still trace back to the Germanic roots of English.
Next....The closest relatives of English
* The two principal Germanic tribes were the Angles and the Saxons. Research seems to show that the entire tribe of the Angles left what is now northern Germany for Briton in the mid 400s. The Saxons, a much larger tribe (probably a confederation of several Germanic tribes), however, did not all participate in the Germanic invasion of Briton. The Jutes were thought to have been another Germanic tribe that participated in the invasion, but in more recent times historians have been divided over this, with some believing the Jutes to have been part of the Saxons (the confederation I mentioned above). Research seems to show that some Frisians and even some Franks participated in the invasion, but not necessarily in great numbers. "Anglo-Saxon" is the term often used for the early English language, or also Old English, and the terms are interchangeable, although to this day "Anglo-Saxon" is sometimes used for the modern English people or for the language, seemingly meant in an affectionate way.
** Prior to the Germanic invasions, Britain was Celtic speaking (the people being called "Britons"), although the Romans had been in a large part of the main island for a few centuries, but not in sufficient numbers to change these Celts to Latin speaking. The Romans withdrew their forces from Briton for the defense of Italy and Rome itself circa 410 A.D. The Germanic invasions seem to have diminished the Celts from most of what was to become England in several ways: first, the Germanic invaders killed many of the Celts; second, other Celts were made slaves by the conquerors, and they eventually died off or mixed in with the new Germanic population; third, a number of Celts fled into what is now modern Wales in the west of Britain, to Cornwall in modern southwestern England, and to what is now Brittany in modern France. Few Celtic words besides some place names were borrowed into English, leaving many scholars to believe most of the Celts either escaped or were killed by the Anglo-Saxons. Whatever the case, a whole new Germanic speaking society was formed.
*** There are two other branches of the Germanic languages: North Germanic, represented in modern times by Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Faroese, and Icelandic; and, East Germanic, which is now extinct, but consisted of Gothic, Vandalic, and Burgundian. Sorry, there is no South Germanic, y'all. Remember, these are "modern" classifications, and the speakers of these various Germanic dialects did not go around claiming to speak "West Germanic, North Germanic, or East Germanic."
**** The Romans conquered what is modern France and remained a major presence there for a few centuries before the Germanic speaking Franks conquered much of the area. The area was Celtic speaking before the Romans marched in, but the Romans administered and stationed so many troops there, the area became Latin speaking. When the Germanic speaking Franks conquered much of the area, they were insufficient in numbers to convert the Latin speaking population to their own language; in fact, ever so gradually (a few hundred years), the Germanic speaking Franks lost their language, as it "blended in" with the Latin dialects of the area, although they gave their name to the territory, "France," and their language name to the language of France, "French." Similar happened in England after the Normans took over. Anglo-Saxon society and language were so rooted in England, the Normans were too small in numbers to have their Norman French dialect overtake English, but their administration gave many words to English, but usually from written texts, not from spoken word; thus these former "French" words were not pronounced in the Norman French manner; they were "Anglicized."
WORD HISTORY:
Originally, it is "assumed," I'd say with a good deal of certainty, that the Germanic tribal elements that founded England could understand one another, although they had spoken different dialects (variations) of Germanic, and more particularly of West Germanic. As many of the dialects of West Germanic and of Germanic, in general, developed further, they grew further apart in mutual intelligibility; that is, how much speakers of the respective dialects could understand one another. English then was influenced by the related North Germanic, as Old Norse (an old form of North Germanic) was carried to England by raiders and settlers, usually Danes, but also some Norwegians, who settled mainly in the northeastern part of England, and also in southern Scotland. All of the Germanic dialects were influenced to varying degrees by Latin at one time or another in two ways: the Roman domination of much of Europe gave various military and government terms to other peoples; and, the adoption of Christianity by the Romans, and the subsequent spread of Christianity throughout Europe (and elsewhere), provided a wide variety of words, not just religious, to other peoples, too, as Latin became the language of the Christian Church. English borrowed some Latin words early on, but it saw a more substantial borrowing from Latin in a roundabout way, as the Norman dialect of French was brought to England by the "Norman Conquest," in late1066 A.D. Old French was a Latin-based language, with Germanic influences from the Germanic tribe the Franks, and the Norman dialect (from the Normandy region) was somewhat different from the dialect of Paris and environs, and it had some North Germanic influences, as Norse raiders had settled in the area; thus giving their name to the region and its people (Northmen=Norman). In this case, the Norse speaking rulers adapted to the regional French dialect, but some Norse words (and "perhaps" some pronunciation) were picked up by the French dialect in the process. Their successful invasion of England brought Norman administration to the English speaking populace, and eventually, although after many word borrowings, Norman French was overwhelmed by English, but it was a gradual process.**** The word borrowings from the Normans, in particular, is what has come to differentiate English vocabulary from its Germanic relatives on the Continent, but the most commonly used English words still trace back to the Germanic roots of English.
Next....The closest relatives of English
* The two principal Germanic tribes were the Angles and the Saxons. Research seems to show that the entire tribe of the Angles left what is now northern Germany for Briton in the mid 400s. The Saxons, a much larger tribe (probably a confederation of several Germanic tribes), however, did not all participate in the Germanic invasion of Briton. The Jutes were thought to have been another Germanic tribe that participated in the invasion, but in more recent times historians have been divided over this, with some believing the Jutes to have been part of the Saxons (the confederation I mentioned above). Research seems to show that some Frisians and even some Franks participated in the invasion, but not necessarily in great numbers. "Anglo-Saxon" is the term often used for the early English language, or also Old English, and the terms are interchangeable, although to this day "Anglo-Saxon" is sometimes used for the modern English people or for the language, seemingly meant in an affectionate way.
** Prior to the Germanic invasions, Britain was Celtic speaking (the people being called "Britons"), although the Romans had been in a large part of the main island for a few centuries, but not in sufficient numbers to change these Celts to Latin speaking. The Romans withdrew their forces from Briton for the defense of Italy and Rome itself circa 410 A.D. The Germanic invasions seem to have diminished the Celts from most of what was to become England in several ways: first, the Germanic invaders killed many of the Celts; second, other Celts were made slaves by the conquerors, and they eventually died off or mixed in with the new Germanic population; third, a number of Celts fled into what is now modern Wales in the west of Britain, to Cornwall in modern southwestern England, and to what is now Brittany in modern France. Few Celtic words besides some place names were borrowed into English, leaving many scholars to believe most of the Celts either escaped or were killed by the Anglo-Saxons. Whatever the case, a whole new Germanic speaking society was formed.
*** There are two other branches of the Germanic languages: North Germanic, represented in modern times by Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Faroese, and Icelandic; and, East Germanic, which is now extinct, but consisted of Gothic, Vandalic, and Burgundian. Sorry, there is no South Germanic, y'all. Remember, these are "modern" classifications, and the speakers of these various Germanic dialects did not go around claiming to speak "West Germanic, North Germanic, or East Germanic."
**** The Romans conquered what is modern France and remained a major presence there for a few centuries before the Germanic speaking Franks conquered much of the area. The area was Celtic speaking before the Romans marched in, but the Romans administered and stationed so many troops there, the area became Latin speaking. When the Germanic speaking Franks conquered much of the area, they were insufficient in numbers to convert the Latin speaking population to their own language; in fact, ever so gradually (a few hundred years), the Germanic speaking Franks lost their language, as it "blended in" with the Latin dialects of the area, although they gave their name to the territory, "France," and their language name to the language of France, "French." Similar happened in England after the Normans took over. Anglo-Saxon society and language were so rooted in England, the Normans were too small in numbers to have their Norman French dialect overtake English, but their administration gave many words to English, but usually from written texts, not from spoken word; thus these former "French" words were not pronounced in the Norman French manner; they were "Anglicized."
WORD HISTORY:
Tongue-This word goes back to Indo European "dnghweha," which meant "tongue." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "tungon." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "tunge," which then became "tonge," before the modern version. The meaning "language" also developed from the original meaning "organ of speaking or of speech." Common throughout the other Germanic tongues, ah, I mean languages: German has "Zunge," Low German has "Tung," Dutch has "tong," Frisian has "tonge," Icelandic and Swedish have "tunga," Danish and Norwegian have "tunge."
Labels: Anglo-Saxon, English, French, Frisian, German, Germanic languages, Latin, Normans, North Germanic, Old Norse, West Germanic
posted by Randy at 1:30 PM
2 Comments:
Good summary.
Really nice job for those who want basic info.
Post a Comment
<< Home