Allied Commanders of World War Two/Eisenhower, Part Two

"Dwight D. Eisenhower" Part 2

In the early summer of 1942 Eisenhower was put in charge of U.S. forces in the "European Theater of Operations" in England, and when Allied forces invaded "French North Africa"* in November 1942, Eisenhower was made Supreme Commander of these forces. During the course of operations in North Africa, then in Sicily, and then on mainland Italy, Eisenhower was confronted by the problems of a multi-national military coalition of American, Free French, and British (and Commonwealth) forces, all with prominent commanders not known for holding their egos in check.** Perhaps his prior experience with General MacArthur helped him, as he navigated this difficult terrain, pitted with egotistical personalities, with more than passing marks, although bruised egos were not uncommon. With North Africa and Sicily cleared of Axis forces, and with an ongoing slogging bout as the Germans slowly retreated up the Italian "boot," Allied emphasis shifted to an invasion of France, and Eisenhower was made its Supreme Commander.

As the Supreme Allied Commander, Eisenhower was in overall charge of planning for the massive invasion to be conducted against German forces defending Hitler's "Atlantic Wall."*** One of the key questions involved where the Allies would actually land. The easiest (in terms of distance) and thus the most inviting area was right across the English Channel in the area of the French city of Calais. It was in this area, however, that the "Atlantic Wall" was much more of a reality, causing Eisenhower and Allied leaders to look elsewhere to increase the chances of a successful landing. Somewhat further down the French coast, and thus further from embarkation ports in England, **** lay the area of Normandy. Here the Germans had been trying to make this portion of the "Atlantic Wall" a reality, but their efforts had not been completed by the early summer of 1944. This area was chosen by the Allies for the invasion. French Resistance forces were employed to help disrupt German communications and transportation networks leading to what would become the battle area. An aerial bombing campaign was also used to damage and disrupt all sorts of transportation facilities throughout France to inhibit German reinforcements from reaching the critical area before the landing had gained a foothold. Now came the big decision...when to land.

* "French North Africa" was composed of the French possessions of French Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, all with sea coast along the Mediterranean Sea. While France had surrendered to Germany in 1940, the surrender agreement permitted limited French military forces to remain in her colonies, as well as in a portion of France itself, usually called "Vichy France," as Paris and the periphery of France along the Atlantic was under German occupation. Upon the Allied invasion of French North Africa, Germany occupied most of "Vichy France," with Italy occupying a segment along the Mediterranean (essentially the "French Riviera").

** Eisenhower had to deal military leaders like Bernhard Montgomery (Britain), Charles deGaulle (Free French), and U.S. generals, George Patton and Mark Clark. He also had to deal with his superiors, Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill.

*** The "Atlantic Wall" was part bluff and part reality. Huge artillery pieces in reinforced concrete emplacements were meant to intimidate Allied invasion planners and any Allied troops assigned for landing operations, as well as to boost German morale to repel any invasion. Nazi propaganda films touted these guns and other fortifications with these purposes in mind. The thing about the big guns was, intimidating as they were, they could only fire out to sea, as they were in fixed fortifications. Once Allied troops landed, the guns could not be turned for use against targets on land. It wasn't until early 1944, after Field Marshal Erwin Rommel was given command of the German forces likely to face the invasion, that much better defensive preparations were made to defeat an Allied invasion. Rommel firmly believed the invasion forces would have to be stopped at the water's edge, before gaining a foothold on the beaches. He had millions of mines laid along beach areas of northwestern France, and he had various underwater obstacles installed to hinder Allied landing craft. Further, many inland areas were flooded and fitted with mines and traps to prohibit Allied paratroopers from landing behind the beach areas. It was under Rommel's command that the "Atlantic Wall" became much more of a reality, especially at certain key points, rather than a propaganda ploy.

**** Not only were troops and equipment to be sent out from these areas for the initial landing, but also supplies had to be sent on a continuing basis once troops were on the beaches or had advanced inland.

WORD HISTORY:
Stag-The origins of this word are very uncertain. There are some theories about the early history of the word, but they are just theories. It is likely, but not a certainty, that English borrowed the word in the 1100s as "stagga" from Old Norse "steggr," a term which was used for a couple of adult male animals. Where Old Norse got the word is unknown, although some connect it to Old Germanic (Old Norse is a Germanic language), but that connection is very dubious, in my opinion. Why it was used in English only for an adult male deer is unclear. Later it became "stagge," before the modern version. In America during the mid 1800s, the word took on the slang meaning of "relating to males only" (usually in "stag party"), and also, "solitary male" ("go stag;" that is, "go to a social function without female accompaniment").