Poison Gas Incident, World War Two

As a follow-up to the "Chemical Warfare 1919-1945" article,* I want to add this important information about an incident in late 1943.

The Allies invaded Italy in September 1943. By a pre-arranged agreement with the Allies, the Italian government surrendered.** After a bitter struggle, the Allies were able to advance inland as the Germans withdrew. Bari is a port city in southeastern Italy that was captured and then used by the Allies to bring in supplies. In early December 1943 the German Luftwaffe (airforce) launched a surprise raid on the port, destroying several ships, including one American ship carrying poison mustard gas. The information about the ship's poison cargo was a strict military secret, and within days of the raid hundreds of Italian civilians and Allied servicemen were treated for various conditions by doctors unaware their patients were suffering the effects of poison gas. How many people died as result of the poison gas is in dispute, as the German air raid was so successful, there were many other casualties from the bombing attack itself, and, as mentioned above, doctors were unaware they were treating people exposed to poison gas, which undoubtedly caused more deaths due to improper treatment, but the number of deaths range from a low of about 70 to a high in the many hundreds.

Allied leaders, Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill, had all information about the poison gas part of the incident suppressed, as it was feared Germany would assume the Allies had the poison gas brought in to launch a gas attack against German forces, or against Germany itself, thus prompting a German retaliatory attack. Near the end of the war the American military did admit to the presence of poison gas during the incident, but they also made clear the gas had been brought into only to give the Allies access to it in case of the need to retaliate against a German gas attack. To my knowledge, Winston Churchill never made such an admission, and it was only in the mid 1980s that the British government admitted to the poison gas being present. Documents about the matter were kept classified and it wasn't until nearly a couple of decades later that the records were declassified and then information was reported by historians.

* The link to that article: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2012/03/chemical-warfare-1919-1945.html

** This Italian government had replaced the former Fascist government of dictator Benito Mussolini in late July 1943, and while it insisted Italy would continue as an ally of Germany, the government immediately entered into secret negotiations with the Allies for an armistice.

WORD HISTORY:
Lorn/Forlorn-"Lorn" goes back to Indo European "leu/lu," with the notion of "undo, loosen, separate." This gave Old Germanic the verb "leusanan," with the meaning "to lose." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "leosan," with the same meaning. Its participle form was "loren" (no Sophia or Ralph jokes, please!), and the notion of "lost" then began to convey the idea of "abandoned, left alone; thus lonely." The verb "leosan" (to lose) began to be overtaken in usage by its close relative, the ancestor of "lose," which I will cover soon. "Loren," which then became just "lorn," continued on, with the idea of "abandonment, being lonely." "Lorn" is now archaic, if not obsolete. The closely related compound "forlorn" and its Germanic relatives trace back to Old Germanic "fraleusanan," which also meant "to lose." This gave Old English "forleosan," which meant "to lose, to ruin, to abandon," and its participle was "forloren," which later became "forlorn." By the 1500s, the idea of "abandonment, loss" transferred the meaning to the result of these things; thus developed the meaning, "extreme sadness, miserable," a meaning exclusive to English, as its Germanic relatives all still retain the meaning(s) "loss, lost." West Frisian has "ferlies" ("loss"), German has "Verloren" (lost), some Low German dialect has "Feluss" (no "r," and note the second part's closeness to English "loss," which is its meaning), Dutch has "verloren" (lost) and "verlies" (loss), Swedish has "förlust" (loss) and "förlorad" (lost), Danish has "forlis" (loss; often used in compounds to specify "loss of a particular thing") and "forlise" (lost, wrecked), Icelandic has "villast" (lost), and Norwegian has "forlis" (loss).

Allied Commanders of World War Two/MacArthur, Final

"Douglas MacArthur" Part 5/Final

One of MacArthur's controversial actions while ruling Japan was his announcement that Emperor Hirohito and his family would not be tried for any war crimes. Further, the general did not require the emperor to step down and Hirohito remained as the constitutional monarch of Japan until early 1989, when he died at the age of 87.

In mid 1950, Communist North Korea invaded South Korea.* Through the United Nations, the American military named MacArthur to lead all United Nations forces to oppose the North Koreans. At first the UN forces (heavily American and South Korean) fell back as the North Koreans pushed forward, but within about six weeks, the situation had stabilized, although with North Korean forces deep inside South Korea (they captured the capitol Seoul). MacArthur launched a bold surprise landing behind North Korean lines, and the enemy forces fled northward for the border. As UN forces approached the border, President Truman gave the go ahead to cross into North Korea. The fear was that China, or perhaps even the Soviet Union, would come to the aid of North Korea, but MacArthur and his advisers thought otherwise, and the general assured Truman of such.** Little did MacArthur know that substantial Chinese forces were infiltrating across the Chinese/North Korean border by night. A major Chinese offensive was launched, and all hell broke loose as the UN forces fell back and MacArthur, who had recently painted a highly optimistic picture of the war nearly being over to President Truman, was now on the hot seat. Once again the situation stabilized and MacArthur launched an attack of his own, which succeeded in recapturing Seoul. President Truman wanted the war to be limited and some negotiated peace settlement to be concluded. MacArthur wanted the Chinese to admit defeat, no matter what it took to do so. This contradicted the President's policy.

The issue of MacArthur and Truman is highly controversial,*** with strong proponents for each side. The President's view was that he was trying to avoid another world war, when the world had not yet recovered from the previous one. And of course matters were complicated by the availability of nuclear weapons. There were other hot spots in the world, like the developing situation in Vietnam, which would later lead to American involvement there, and of course, the situation in Europe, with Communist-dominated eastern Europe versus the central and western European nations, along with the United States. MacArthur, ever the military strategist, saw a military threat and wanted to crush it, even at the risk of a larger war. Republicans in Congress let it be known that MacArthur was dissatisfied with Truman's policy, and they liked to quote from MacArthur's letter on the Korean situation, "There can be no substitute for victory."****

Truman issued an order that military personnel were to have all public statements about policy "cleared" before they were issued, but MacArthur issued a public offer for a ceasefire. Truman was furious and this ultimately led to his relieving General MacArthur of his command. Back in the United States, a firestorm erupted as some Republicans wanted Truman impeached and removed form office. Some Republicans even believed Truman relieved MacArthur under pressure from "socialists" in foreign governments, especially Britain. MacArthur returned to the United States to a hero's welcome. He spoke to a joint session of Congress where he not only repeated his "no substitute for victory" line, but uttered another line destined for the history books, "Old soldiers never die, they just fade away." MacArthur retired to the Waldorf-Astoria in New York. He died in 1964 at the age of 84. I remember his death and the public funeral thereafter, as it was carried television.

Note: I used the following book for some information for this series on General MacArthur:
"American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur, 1880-1964," by William Manchester, published by Little, Brown and Company, Boston, 1978.

* Korea had been controlled by Japan since the early 1900s. With the defeat of Japan in World War Two, the United States and the Soviet Union divided occupation of the country until free elections could be held. The Soviets did not adhere to the agreement and instead established a Communist government in the Soviet-controlled part, while a "western" oriented government was established in the American-controlled part. Both parts supported the notion that there was only one Korea, but each claimed to be the legitimate government of the whole.

** The Soviet Union supplied weapons to all Communist countries in those times. The presence of Chinese troops in North Korea came to be known, but intelligence estimates put the number FAR below the actual number. One of the issues between Truman and MacArthur developed from the general's assurance to the President that China would not substantially intervene in Korea, and that the war was nearly over (this was in October 1950). He even told Truman that many troops would soon be headed for Japan, and that some would even be available for use in Europe, then another hot spot.

*** This is very brief and the actual matters and actions were far more involved. There are many good sources for those interested in more detailed information. Please check your local library.

**** MacArthur had sent a letter to Republican congressional leaders with this now famous saying in it.

WORD HISTORY:
Hero/Heroine-These words have an unclear ancient history, although many etymologists seem to believe "hero" goes back to the Indo European root "ser," which meant "protect;" thus, if correct, a "hero" was literally "a protector." To be quite honest, I'm not totally sold. Greek had "heros" (this is the singular form, although the "s" makes it appear as a plural to English speakers), which meant a "semi divine man/warrior." Latin borrowed the word from Greek as "heros," and English then borrowed it from Latin circa 1390, although it wasn't until the mid 1600s that it took on the modern meaning of "a man who displays extraordinary courage and daring." "Heroine," comes from the feminine form of Greek "heros," which was "heroine," which was borrowed into Latin and then into English in the mid 1600s.
Note: "Hero" overtook the original English word for such, "haeleth," which came from Old Germanic "halithaz," and which also gave Old High German and Old Saxon "helid" (now modern "Held"), Old Dutch "helit" (modern "held"), Old Frisian "heleth" (modern "held"), and is the source of modern Norwegian and Danish "helt" and of Swedish "hjälte." Icelandic has "hetja," presumably from the same source, but without the "l' sound. So, if English hadn't borrowed "hero," we likely would say something very much like "held/helt."

Allied Commanders of World War Two/MacArthur, Part Four

"Douglas MacArthur" Part 4

MacArthur was determined to return to the Philippines and to free the multi-island nation from Japanese occupation. In the fall of 1944, the point chosen for the initial assault was the island of Leyte, which lies more to the eastern part of the Philippines. After heavy fighting and stubborn Japanese resistance, much of the island was subdued, but fighting continued there well into 1945.* MacArthur was promoted to "General of the Army" (5 Star General) in mid December 1944 (made his permanent rank in 1946). The bloody campaign in the Philippines continued for months, but eventually the area was essentially secured.** MacArthur and the Allied command planned an invasion of Japan, but the war ended before such a costly operation had to be undertaken. MacArthur received the formal surrender by the Japanese on September 2, 1945 aboard the U.S.S. Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

For three years after the war ended, General MacArthur, Supreme Allied Commander in Japan, effectively became the head of the Japanese government. A new constitution was put in place which limited Japanese military matters and very much limited the power of the Emperor of Japan. MacArthur instituted various reforms, including the encouragement of Japanese workers to join unions, and the sale of land to former tenant farmers (Oh boy! Today's Republican leaders would call him all sorts of nasty names, with "socialist" undoubtedly being the kindest). Under MacArthur's guidance, Japan was well on the way to becoming a democratic nation. In 1949, MacArthur gave over his power to the Japanese government.

Next, the final installment on General MacArthur.

* The Philippines had a lot of jungle and rough terrain (besides a multitude of islands), areas perfect for concealment and ambush. This terrain worked for the Filipino resistance movement early on, and then for the Japanese defenders against American forces. A decent movie depicting the terrain is 1950's "American Guerrilla in the Philippines," which starred Tyrone Power. It is "based" upon a true story of an American PT boat crew stranded in the Philippines during the Japanese occupation and how they hid out and helped the Filipino resistance. It is well worth seeing.

** Throughout the war in the Pacific groups of Japanese military personnel were often bypassed by Allied mopping up operations, including in the Philippines. Sometimes months or even years after the war ended, Japanese soldiers were discovered in hiding. They were out of radio communication with their homeland and they did not know the war had ended, or their military honor dictated that they had not received orders to lay down their arms. An episode of "Gilligan's Island" in the mid 1960s played on this theme when the castaways are captured by a Japanese sailor (with a mini-submarine). In real life, some Japanese soldiers only gave up in the 1960s and 1970s, after some twenty to thirty years in hiding!

WORD HISTORY:
Pine (2)-This is the verb with the meaning "to long for painfully, to grieve for." It is not related to the noun meaning "a type of evergreen tree,"^ but it is very closely related to the word "pain." This word apparently goes back to Indo European "kwei/kwoi," which had the idea of "pay, compensate." This gave its Greek offspring "poine," which meant "penalty, fine." This then gave Latin "poena," which meant "penalty, punishment," which later became "pena." This was then borrowed into Old Germanic, which gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "pinian," which meant "to cause pain or suffering, to torture." This later became "pinen," before the modern version. German has "Pein," which means "pain," as does Low German Saxon "Pien," Dutch "pijn," and Frisian "pine;" Danish and Norwegian have "pine," which means "torment," as does Swedish "pina." Apparently usage in Icelandic has died out, as I could not find a form of the word.

^ For the history of the noun, see: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2012/03/allied-commanders-of-world-war_11.html

Allied Commanders of World War Two/MacArthur, Part Three

"Douglas MacArthur" Part 3

Japanese air attacks on the Philippines were followed by troop landings and the American-Filipino forces retreated to Bataan,* where stubborn resistance to the Japanese invasion continued. The situation had become hopeless, as no relief of the besieged forces was possible at that time. MacArthur was ordered by President Roosevelt to leave the Philippines for Australia to develop a strategy to combat the Japanese Pacific assault. In March 1942, MacArthur, his wife and young son, and a number of aides and staff personnel escaped by PT boats to an airbase in the southern Philippines. From there they were flown to Australia. Upon arrival in Australia MacArthur told an audience, "I came out of Bataan, and I shall return." The "I shall return" part became an American slogan used throughout the war. The American and Filipino forces surrendered by May 1942, but MacArthur was awarded the Medal of Honor for the stubborn defense against the Japanese army.**

In Australia MacArthur was named Supreme Allied Commander for the Southwest Pacific. His command consisted mainly of American and Australian troops, with increasingly powerful American air and naval units. A little over a month after the final surrender of the Philippines, American naval forces inflicted a devastating defeat on the Japanese navy at the "Battle of Midway." An American landing on the island of Guadalcanal in August 1942 eventually brought a victory there by early 1943. The war was turning in favor of the Allies. Other victories followed, and sights were set on fulfillment of the "I shall return" pledge.

* Bataan is a peninsula on the western side of Luzon, the largest island in the Philippines. A quantity of supplies had been stored on Bataan. Manila, the capitol of the Philippines, is located on the island of Luzon.

** Just a little note here: when I was younger, World War Two was a very popular subject, as the war hadn't been over all that long, and many veterans were still alive. MacArthur remained highly controversial among some of those veterans, with some feeling he "ran away" from the Philippines to save himself, leaving his men to their fate. My father had served in the Pacific during the war and he liked MacArthur, so I grew up with a healthy respect for the general. I was stunned to hear some of the charges leveled at MacArthur. As more and more information was released on World War Two, I felt satisfied that the charge of MacArthur running away was unjustified. He had been ordered by the President to leave the Philippines.

WORD HISTORY:
Spruce-The noun form is a shortening of "Spruce fir tree." This seems to have come into English in the 1300s from French "Pruce," which meant "Prussia." No one has been able to put forth a credible reason why the "s" was added to the beginning in English. The French term went back to Latin "Prussia." (See note below) It seems trade goods from the German Hanseatic League were often referred to as being from "Prussia," and the particular fir tree was thought to be Prussian; thus the term was applied to the tree, with some even calling it "Prussian fir." The verb form came about in the 1500s and it has the same origin, although it seems to have come from Prussian leather, a common trade item centuries ago, and then dubbed "Spruce leather." The leather was then often used to make a fine, trim looking jacket-like garment. The notion of "fine, trim garment" came to be applied to other items that were perfected, or "spruced up." NOTE: Prussia was named after a particular tribe, the Prussians, who were closely related to the Lithuanians and the Latvians. As Germans spread eastward, they conquered the area and then settled there, with the Prussians mixing in with the new German settlers. The region continued to be called "Prussia," and the inhabitants "Prussians," even though the area became "Germanized," and the Prussian language died out. The terms "Prussia" and "Prussians" came to be associated with the German settlements there. Since the end of World War Two, the German region of Prussia has ceased to exist, with much of the former province becoming a part of Poland, and a smaller section a part of the Soviet Union (now Russia).

Allied Commanders of World War Two/MacArthur, Part Two

"Douglas MacArthur" Part 2

MacArthur was Superintendent of West Point for three years and he brought change to the tradition-bound institution, something that was not popular with all involved. For decades the course of military study centered around the Civil War. MacArthur ordered the just recently fought World War* to be the main course of study. He also emphasized sports as an important part of the curriculum.

In the fall of 1922, MacArthur was sent to the Philippines where he made many friends among the Filipino people, something that did not sit well with some bigots and self anointed super American patriots who saw the Filipinos as purely colonials.** By the mid 1920s he was back in America, serving in various positions until he returned briefly to the Philippines and then was named Chief of Staff of the Army in late 1930. During the Great Depression, it was MacArthur who was given orders by then President Herbert Hoover to disperse "Bonus March" protesters who were camped out in Washington, D.C.*** The use of the Army, including tanks, became a political hot potato, and MacArthur's role in the spectacle that played out in newsreels across the country has been challenged by some on the political right, but the general chose to be there, and he was Chief of Staff of the Army. All the facts will never be truly known. MacArthur and the Army operated the Civilian Conservation Corps, a New Deal program, during the Great Depression. In the fall of 1935 MacArthur was asked to help form the Philippine army in preparation for independence. He was given the title "Field Marshal of the Philippines," and he was accompanied by his aide, Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Gradually MacArthur and Philippine leaders, helped by aid from the U.S., began the formation of a new Philippine military. MacArthur retired from active duty with the U.S. Army, but remained in the Philippines. As America drew closer to military involvement in World War Two, President Roosevelt recalled MacArthur to the army, giving him command of U.S. Forces in the Far East, and the U.S. took control of the Philippine forces (it was still a possession of the United States). On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.

* Since at that time there had only been one world war, the term "World War" or "the Great War" were commonly used.

** The Philippines, a series of islands, were under Spanish rule from the 1500s until the treaty between the United States and Spain ended the Spanish-American War in late 1898 (the treaty was not ratified until the spring of 1899). The Philippines then remained an American possession (colony) until the mid 1930s, when the islands were granted commonwealth status in preparation for independence. As a "commonwealth," the Philippines had their own government, but were under U.S. jurisdiction in foreign policy and military matters. World War Two and the Japanese invasion brought the move to independence to a halt, but after the war the nation was given its independence from the U.S. in 1946.

*** For information on the "Bonus March" and the use of the U.S. Army, see my article: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2012/05/great-depression-part-nine.html

WORD HISTORY:
Pine-This is the "pine" of "pine tree, pine cone, pineapple." It is likely this word goes back to the Indo European root "pei," which meant "sap or resin for trees and plants, and fat regarding flesh." This gave its Latin offspring "pinus," which meant "pine tree, or the wood derived from such a tree." Old English borrowed the word as "pin," with a long "i" sound, and it was used in the English compound "pintreow," which meant "pine tree." "Pin" was later reinforced by French "pin," which had the same meaning. French is a Latin-based language.

Allied Commanders of World War Two/MacArthur, Part One

"Douglas MacArthur" Part 1

While I have spent decades studying about World War Two in Europe (including North Africa), I must admit I have not given nearly as much time to the war in Asia and the Pacific, although my father served in the U.S. Army in the Pacific Theatre. Why this happened, I don't really know, although as a kid some of the neighbors' fathers had brought back souvenirs from Germany, like Nazi armbands, daggers, a German pistol and one even had a German helmet.* Then too, there were lots of documentaries about the war, seemingly always tilted more towards the European war than towards the Pacific war. Anyway, General MacArthur is such a towering figure in World War Two and in American military history, I feel I must cover him in this series. There are many books and articles about General MacArthur, but I consulted the following for some information for this five part series: "American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur 1880-1964," by William Manchester, published by Little, Brown and Company, Boston, 1978.

Douglas MacArthur was born in Arkansas, the son of a military officer, and the grandson of a Scottish immigrant. He learned much about the military from his father during his childhood and he later attended West Point Military Academy, where he graduated first in his class. His unit was sent to the Philippines, thus beginning MacArthur's long connection with that country. Not long thereafter, MacArthur served as an aide to his own father, who was a high ranking general by then. His father's position gave the young MacArthur the opportunity to visit many parts of Asia and the Pacific, an almost prelude to the role he would later serve in World War Two. Prior to World War One, MacArthur served with American forces in Mexico during that nation's revolution. When war was declared on Germany in April 1917, MacArthur was made chief of staff of the 42nd Division, which was deployed to France. During the war MacArthur was decorated numerous times and was cited for bravery on a number of other occasions. MacArthur was promoted to brigadier general in command of one of the division's brigades in 1918. After the war, he spent time with American forces on occupation duty in Germany, but returned to the United States in 1919. His brigadier general rank was kept** and MacArthur was made superintendent of West Point.

* The odd shape of the helmets was fascinating to us kids, although little did we know the U.S. military would eventually adopt a similar style, which is in use today. As kids, we did not comprehend the evil symbolized by some of the souvenirs brought back from Europe.

** During wartime officers often are promoted "temporarily" to higher ranks, as officers at all levels are in demand. After a war, it is customary for many of those so promoted to revert to their previous rank, but in this case, MacArthur retained his brigadier general rank of wartime.

WORD HISTORY:
Fir-This word for a pine tree goes back to Indo European "perkwu," which meant "oak." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "furhjon," which took the variant meaning "pine, fir." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "furh," which was used in the compound "furhwudu;" that is, "pine wood." Old Norse, a North Germanic language, brought the related word "fyri" to parts of England, with the same meaning. Likely this reinforced the original English word, giving English "firre" by the 1300s, and later "fir" in the modern version. German has "Föhre," Low German Saxon has "Fuhr," Danish has "fyr," Icelandic and Swedish have "fura," Norwegian has "furu." I could not find versions in modern Frisian or Dutch.

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Patton, Part Three/Final

"George S. Patton" Part 3

With the defeat of the German offensive known as "the Battle of the Bulge," Patton's army pressed into Germany and crossed the Rhine River. In mid April 1945, Patton was promoted to four-star general, although just a couple of weeks before, he had gotten into more trouble by sending a force of some 300 men behind German lines to liberate a POW camp where his son-in-law was a prisoner. The operation failed and almost the entire force was lost. The 3rd Army advanced through Bavaria and into (German held) Czechoslovakia as the war ended.

As the postwar military governor of the German state of Bavaria, Patton got into more trouble, as his dislike of the Soviets prompted him to express views and to take actions that were highly controversial. He kept former Nazis in office to help govern the region, compared Nazis to American political parties, referred to Russians in Nazi-like terms, like "Asiatic" and "Mongolian,"* and espoused using the German army in conjunction with the Western Allies against the Soviets. While tensions with the Soviets mounted, Patton's strident opinions did not sit well with many Americans or western Europeans who had had enough of war, and just wanted to recover from World War Two. Eisenhower relieved Patton of his command, although the general prepared to help write the history of the U.S. Army in the war.

In December 1945 General Patton was injured in what appeared to be a relatively minor auto accident (others involved were uninjured), but he was paralysed by a spinal injury. He died a couple of weeks later from a blood clot in his lung. He is buried with 3rd Army troops in Luxembourg.**

* The Soviet Union actually inherited the former multi-ethnic Russian Empire of the Tsar, and as such, a large area of the country lay in Asia. The term "Russian" had become standard for Soviet citizens by many people around the world, although many were not really Russian at all. Nazi propaganda had played up the "Asian" part of the Soviet population to scare Germans and western Europeans into fighting against the Soviets (remember, historically Asian tribes like the Mongols and Huns had pushed into many parts of Europe in prior centuries), although there is no question that Nazi racial and ethnic ideas had long preached this Asian connection. There is also no question that Russians had been influenced by Asians (even mode of dress) prior to Tsar Peter the Great, who forcibly changed Russians to more western European ways.

** For my article on the movie, "Patton," see: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2011/09/patton-just-great-movie.html

WORD HISTORY:
Hand-This word "may" go back to an Indo European base "khend/khent," which had the notion of "seizing, grasping," but it only developed its meaning of "body part" in Germanic, as forms of the word are not found outside of the Germanic languages, except in borrowings. Old Germanic had "khanduz," which meant "hand." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "hand/hond," depending upon dialect, which later just became "hand." Common in the other Germanic languages: German has "Hand" (all German nouns are capitalized), Low German Saxon has "Hann," Dutch, West Frisian, Swedish, and Norwegian all have "hand," although Norwegian also has the variation, " hånd" (depending upon dialect), Danish has "hånd," and Icelandic has "hönd."

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Patton, Part Two

"George S. Patton" Part 2

The Germans were fascinated by Patton, as his military tactics and his disciplinary measures were similar to their own. Eisenhower and the Allies used this German fixation with Patton to their advantage, and they used every opportunity to keep the Germans believing that Patton would lead the next major Allied operation. Patton remained in the Mediterranean area for quite some time, and German military intelligence believed this pointed to a possible invasion of Greece. Later Patton went to England, where stories were leaked that he would be in charge of the invasion of France, and that the invasion would be directly across the English Channel to the area around Calais. The German forces were, therefore, bolstered in the Calais region, and even when Allied troops landed further down the coast in Normandy, many German military leaders were convinced it was only a diversionary attack and that Patton would still lead the main landing around Calais. This "fascination" with Patton kept a substantial German force (the 15th Army) awaiting an invasion that had already taken place.*

Patton was given command of the U.S. Third Army to concentrate on a breakout from the Normandy area. While the Allied landings were a success, the Germans and their use of the Normandy terrain proved a tough nut to crack. Patton's hard charging forces broke through the dwindling German lines and then turned to help trap a significant German force around the French town of Falais. The breakthrough brought a headlong retreat by the Germans. The Allied advance was so rapid, supply problems became about as big an issue as the Germans. With his fuel reserves low, Patton met with increasing German defensive resistance in Lorraine, the long-contested province along part of the German-French border.** With his forces unable to breakthrough the German lines, Patton's army was forced to slug it out with well led German units as winter approached.

Just when it looked as though the Germans would be defeated sooner rather than later, Hitler launched a massive surprise offensive north of Patton's 3rd Army in Belgium in mid December 1944. An initial German breakthrough brought heavy American casualties, and Eisenhower needed Patton to help stabilize the situation and to help relieve besieged U.S. forces in the Belgian town of Bastogne. Patton had anticipated Eisenhower's move, and he had his excellent staff make preparations for an assault by some of 3rd Army's units against the German southern flank. The German encirclement of Bastogne was broken and the German offensive foundered.

Next...the final part on General Patton.

* A good movie about the D-Day landings is the early 1960s "The Longest Day," based upon a book by the same name by American author Cornelius Ryan. It has a number of well known actors, including John Wayne, Robert Mitchum, Henry Fonda, Richard Burton and Sean Connery. It can easily be purchased or rented. For those studying German, there are quite a number of scenes with German dialogue, with English subtitles. The movie only covers the crucial first day of the landing operations, but it gives a good account of the historical events.

** The area had been German, but had gradually been taken over by France until 1871, when the newly formed modern German nation annexed the province (along with equally disputed province of Alsace) upon the defeat of France in war. France reclaimed the regions after World War One, and Germany took control once again after France was defeated in 1940. The area has been part of France since the end of World War Two, and the matter seems to be settled.

WORD HISTORY:
Sword-This word likely goes back to the Indo European base "suer/swer," with the meaning of "cut." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "swerdan," which then gave Old English "sweord." The "w" sound was once pronounced. Very common in the other Germanic languages: German has "Schwert," Low German Saxon has "Sweert," West Frisian has "swurd," Dutch has "zwaard," Norwegian has "sverd, " Danish has "svaerd," Swedish has "svärd," and Icelandic has "sverð" (similar to 'sverth')

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Patton, Part One

"George S. Patton" Part 1

This highly controversial American World War Two general was made even more famous by the 1970 release of the successful motion picture "Patton," in which the general was portrayed by George C. Scott. Patton had a number family members who were officers in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War, and his family was well off financially. Patton attended West Point and he became a cavalry officer. Later Patton served under General John Pershing during the American expedition into Mexico in response to Pancho Villa's raid into American territory. Patton achieved success in an attack in which he personally killed one of Villa's leaders. This gave the future general his first taste of fame.

During World War One Patton organized American tank units in France, where he was wounded near the end of the war. After the war, Patton teamed up with his future superior Dwight Eisenhower in developing ideas about American armored warfare, including the idea of relentlessly pursuing the enemy with mobile forces to prevent his digging in, and to, in his opinion, prevent higher casualties. Just months before America entered World War Two, Patton was put in command of the U.S. Second Armored Division. In November 1942 Patton was in charge of part of the American forces which landed in French Morocco, well in the rear of German Field Marshal Rommel's retreating army. The defeat of the U.S. II Corps by German and Italian units at the "Battle of Kasserine Pass" prompted General Eisenhower (the overall commander of the American forces there) to put Patton in command of the corps. Patton's strict discipline brought the corps together and helped it (along with other Allied forces) drive the Axis forces back until they surrendered North Africa in May 1943.

Patton was given command of the U.S. Seventh Army for the invasion of Sicily. Initially Patton's army was relegated to protecting the flank of British and Commonwealth forces under the command of Bernard Law Montgomery, but Patton quickly improvised and sent troops into western Sicily and then onto the key city of Messina. It was during the Sicilian Campaign that General Patton slapped a couple of American soldiers who were in hospitals with no wounds. The first incident became a major story, and Patton was ordered by Eisenhower to apologize to the soldier and various units of the army. Patton was removed as commander of the Seventh Army, and while the outward appearance was that the general was in disgrace, Eisenhower actually had big plans for his friend "Georgie" Patton.

WORD HISTORY:
Ox-This noun goes back to Indo European "uksen," which became "ukhson" in its Old Germanic offspring. This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "oxa," which then became "ox." The plural, "oxen," is a retention of the old way English commonly, but not exclusively, formed plurals, and other Germanic languages still often use "n" or "en" to form plurals; for example, German has "Frau" (woman), and "Frauen" (women). Forms of "ox" are common in the other Germanic languages: German has "Ochse," Low German has "Oss," Dutch has "os," West Frisian has "okse," Swedish has "oxe," Icelandic has "uxi," and Norwegian and Danish have "okse."

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Eisenhower, Part Three

"Dwight D. Eisenhower" Part 3

Eisenhower made some crucial (and often controversial) decisions during the war. General George Patton often got into trouble during the war,* and Eisenhower reprimanded him, but he also continued to recognize Patton's talents that could help bring the war to a successful conclusion, supporting the naming of Patton to command the U.S. Third Army, a critical force for the breaking of the German lines in Normandy. Further, the launching of the D-Day invasion was hampered by bad weather conditions, but Eisenhower made a bold decision to go forward, catching the Germans sort of "off guard," because they did not consider the weather conditions favorable for the invasion, and many commanders, including Field Marshal Rommel, were away from their commands. Eisenhower also prepared a statement accepting responsibility for the failure of the invasion, if that result had taken place. How many people do any of us know who would take such responsibility?

In advance of the invasion, Eisenhower made it a point to visit the units to be involved in the invasion, and there is a famous photograph of him talking with American paratroopers who would soon be dropped in the rear areas of Normandy. In September 1944 Eisenhower went along with British Field Marshal Montgomery's plan to drop paratroops behind the German lines in the Netherlands in conjunction with a ground offensive. The operation was very costly, as the Germans reacted quickly and killed or captured many of the paratroops, and the operation did not succeed in its overall objectives. In December 1944, Hitler launched a major winter offensive against American forces near the Belgian-German border. The initial success of the attack brought a controversial decision from Eisenhower to place British Field Marshal Montgomery in charge of operations in the area; thus placing American troops under Montgomery's command, something that did not sit well with some Americans.** During this same time period, Eisenhower was promoted to "General of the Army (Five Star General)," the equivalent to a British or German field marshal. As the war neared its end, Eisenhower made the decision NOT to send forces to capture Berlin, but to permit the Soviets to take the city.***

As the war ended, Eisenhower ordered extensive documentation, including photos and films, of the horrors of the Nazi concentration camps under control of the Western Allies. The documentation served to prosecute Nazi leaders at the Nuremberg Trials in the postwar period, but it still serves to this day to refute those who deny the perpetration of the atrocities, including absurd Nazi apologists.

Next, the final installment on Eisenhower.

* I'll be doing an article on General Patton in the near future, and I will cover these issues then, but Patton first got into trouble by slapping a soldier in a hospital during the Sicily campaign. The incident became a big story, and Eisenhower required a public apology from Patton, including to the units of the Seventh Army, then under his command.

** Montgomery's claim to have saved the Americans made the controversy even worse, but "Monty," like Patton, was never one to fail to build up his own image.

*** For more information on the Berlin decision, see my article: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2011/09/allies-berlin-1945.html

WORD HISTORY:
Curse-This word, meaning "a spoken wish that harm come to someone," has a very shaky history. Attempts to connect this word to an ancestral term have been unsatisfactory, at best, as "apparently" there are no words in the other Germanic languages, past or present, that qualify as a relative, nor does it seem to have been borrowed from Latin or Celtic.^ Anyway, Old English (Anglo-Saxon) had "curs," before the modern version. The verb form in Old English was "cursian," and from the notion of "putting a curse on someone," came the idea during the 1200s of "using profanity" ("curse words") perhaps in the sense, "damn those people who steal" (literally, a "curse"), and then later meaning any profanity. "Cuss," the verb form meaning "swear," is from the American dialect of English dating from the early 1800s, where the "r" sound died out.^^ I can hear the English now, "Those damned Americans!"

^ Some speculate it "could" have been borrowed from Latin "cursus," which is the ancestor of English "course," as in "the path taken by a river or a runner, and also a class ('course') taken in education." Celtic was replaced in part of Britain by the Germanic dialects that became English; thus it was thought that perhaps it was borrowed from the language of the Britons, a Celtic dialect, but no successful connection has been made. Just as with Germanic, there are no "apparent" words, past or present, in either Latin or Celtic that seem to match up with "curse."

^^ Essentially the same thing happened with "gal," which is really "girl," where the vowel sound became altered and the "r" died out.

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Eisenhower, Part Two

"Dwight D. Eisenhower" Part 2

In the early summer of 1942 Eisenhower was put in charge of U.S. forces in the "European Theater of Operations" in England, and when Allied forces invaded "French North Africa"* in November 1942, Eisenhower was made Supreme Commander of these forces. During the course of operations in North Africa, then in Sicily, and then on mainland Italy, Eisenhower was confronted by the problems of a multi-national military coalition of American, Free French, and British (and Commonwealth) forces, all with prominent commanders not known for holding their egos in check.** Perhaps his prior experience with General MacArthur helped him, as he navigated this difficult terrain, pitted with egotistical personalities, with more than passing marks, although bruised egos were not uncommon. With North Africa and Sicily cleared of Axis forces, and with an ongoing slogging bout as the Germans slowly retreated up the Italian "boot," Allied emphasis shifted to an invasion of France, and Eisenhower was made its Supreme Commander.

As the Supreme Allied Commander, Eisenhower was in overall charge of planning for the massive invasion to be conducted against German forces defending Hitler's "Atlantic Wall."*** One of the key questions involved where the Allies would actually land. The easiest (in terms of distance) and thus the most inviting area was right across the English Channel in the area of the French city of Calais. It was in this area, however, that the "Atlantic Wall" was much more of a reality, causing Eisenhower and Allied leaders to look elsewhere to increase the chances of a successful landing. Somewhat further down the French coast, and thus further from embarkation ports in England, **** lay the area of Normandy. Here the Germans had been trying to make this portion of the "Atlantic Wall" a reality, but their efforts had not been completed by the early summer of 1944. This area was chosen by the Allies for the invasion. French Resistance forces were employed to help disrupt German communications and transportation networks leading to what would become the battle area. An aerial bombing campaign was also used to damage and disrupt all sorts of transportation facilities throughout France to inhibit German reinforcements from reaching the critical area before the landing had gained a foothold. Now came the big decision...when to land.

* "French North Africa" was composed of the French possessions of French Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, all with sea coast along the Mediterranean Sea. While France had surrendered to Germany in 1940, the surrender agreement permitted limited French military forces to remain in her colonies, as well as in a portion of France itself, usually called "Vichy France," as Paris and the periphery of France along the Atlantic was under German occupation. Upon the Allied invasion of French North Africa, Germany occupied most of "Vichy France," with Italy occupying a segment along the Mediterranean (essentially the "French Riviera").

** Eisenhower had to deal military leaders like Bernhard Montgomery (Britain), Charles deGaulle (Free French), and U.S. generals, George Patton and Mark Clark. He also had to deal with his superiors, Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill.

*** The "Atlantic Wall" was part bluff and part reality. Huge artillery pieces in reinforced concrete emplacements were meant to intimidate Allied invasion planners and any Allied troops assigned for landing operations, as well as to boost German morale to repel any invasion. Nazi propaganda films touted these guns and other fortifications with these purposes in mind. The thing about the big guns was, intimidating as they were, they could only fire out to sea, as they were in fixed fortifications. Once Allied troops landed, the guns could not be turned for use against targets on land. It wasn't until early 1944, after Field Marshal Erwin Rommel was given command of the German forces likely to face the invasion, that much better defensive preparations were made to defeat an Allied invasion. Rommel firmly believed the invasion forces would have to be stopped at the water's edge, before gaining a foothold on the beaches. He had millions of mines laid along beach areas of northwestern France, and he had various underwater obstacles installed to hinder Allied landing craft. Further, many inland areas were flooded and fitted with mines and traps to prohibit Allied paratroopers from landing behind the beach areas. It was under Rommel's command that the "Atlantic Wall" became much more of a reality, especially at certain key points, rather than a propaganda ploy.

**** Not only were troops and equipment to be sent out from these areas for the initial landing, but also supplies had to be sent on a continuing basis once troops were on the beaches or had advanced inland.

WORD HISTORY:
Stag-The origins of this word are very uncertain. There are some theories about the early history of the word, but they are just theories. It is likely, but not a certainty, that English borrowed the word in the 1100s as "stagga" from Old Norse "steggr," a term which was used for a couple of adult male animals. Where Old Norse got the word is unknown, although some connect it to Old Germanic (Old Norse is a Germanic language), but that connection is very dubious, in my opinion. Why it was used in English only for an adult male deer is unclear. Later it became "stagge," before the modern version. In America during the mid 1800s, the word took on the slang meaning of "relating to males only" (usually in "stag party"), and also, "solitary male" ("go stag;" that is, "go to a social function without female accompaniment").

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Eisenhower, Part One

"Dwight D. Eisenhower" Part 1

This well known American general and 34th President of the United States traces his ancestry back to Germany, where the name was "Eisenhauer" (pronounced the same as the altered form "Eisenhower"), which literally meant "iron hewer;" that is, someone who fashions iron into usable forms by "striking" and "trimming" it (see "Word History" below). The future president was born in Texas, but raised in Kansas. He attended West Point, and served in the United States in the newly developing tank forces during World War One, where his organizing abilities received attention from his superiors. After the war, Eisenhower was part of an army study of the U.S. road system, an experience he later used as president for the development of the interstate highway system. He also served for a time in the Panama Canal Zone and in France. During the early part of the Great Depression, Eisenhower served as aide to General Douglas MacArthur, and participated in dispersal of the so called "Bonus Army" in Washington, D.C. in the summer of 1932.* He went to the Philippines with MacArthur during the 1930s, where his disagreements with the colorful general may have contributed to MacArthur's later off-the-cuff remark about Eisenhower as, "The best clerk I ever had."** Eisenhower returned to the U.S. and served in a variety of staff assignments, including under General George C. Marshall, the Army Chief of Staff. it was this assignment which put Eisenhower on the road to fame. The Japanese attacked the American Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, America declared war, and Hitler and Mussolini both then declared war on the United States. The stage was set for an American military leader to go against Germany and Italy.

* After World War One, Congress granted veterans of the World War era special "bonus" certificates that could be redeemed in full for money in 1945. The severity of the economic collapse and the resulting Great Depression left many veterans out of work, prompting a number of groups to spring up across the country advocating immediate payment of the "bonus" money. In 1932, a number of veterans, their families and supporters came from around the country on a "Bonus March" on Washington as the "Bonus Army," as it came to be called. The "army" camped out in tents and shacks, but some also tried to take over buildings. There were outbreaks of violence, and some people were killed, leading then President Herbert Hoover to order troops to disperse the "Bonus Army." General MacArthur, who was in charge of the operation, exceeded his orders and had the "Bonus Army" routed with cavalry and tanks, and ordered their encampment burned. The whole spectacle played out in newsreels at movie houses across the country. The incident is partially credited with giving Franklin Roosevelt a landslide victory over Hoover in the election later that year. For a little more, see my article: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2007/09/great-depression-part-nine.html

** My father served in the Pacific during World War Two, where General MacArthur was in charge of American operations. He liked MacArthur very much, but he was never very keen on Eisenhower, perhaps due to Eisenhower having served in Europe during the war. Even though a staunch Republican throughout his life (with some reservations not long before his death), my father was never all that taken with Eisenhower as president either, preferring his vice president, Richard Nixon. Anyway, my dad often quoted MacArthur's line about Eisenhower being the best clerk he ever had.

WORD HISTORY:
Hew-While not real common in every day speech, this word is still around. It goes back to Indo European "khou/khowa," which had the notion "to strike, to hit, to cut by striking." This gave Old Germanic "hawwan(an)," with the same basic meanings. This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "heawan," with the meaning "to hack, to chop (both with that notion of 'cutting by striking'). Later this became "hewen," before the modern version. The noun "hewer" was derived from the verb. Forms of the word are common throughout the other Germanic languages: West Frisian "houwe," Dutch "houwen," German "hauen," some Low German "heiwe," other Low German "hauen," Swedish "hugga," Icelandic "höggva," Norwegian "hugge"/"hogga" (depending upon dialect), and Danish "hugge."

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Montgomery

"Sir Bernard Law Montgomery"

By far the most famous British commander of World War Two, Montgomery was born in London, the son of an Anglican clergyman. He later studied at Sandhurst Military Academy. After graduation his unit was sent to India, then a British colony, but the unit was then sent to France when World War One started, and Montgomery was severely wounded and almost killed there in the fall of 1914. After recuperating, he was again sent to France as a staff officer. After the war he received various promotions and assignments, including service in Ireland prior to its independence from Britain, but he also returned to India and served in the Middle East. By 1938 Montgomery was in command of a division in Palestine, then under British rule (termed a "mandate"), and his division was involved in suppressing revolts by the local non-Jewish, mainly Arab, population.

Montgomery returned to Britain not long before the outbreak of World War Two. He and his new division were sent to France right after Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939. Montgomery and his division were returned to Britain as part of the massive (and highly successful) evacuation from Dunkirk, a northern coastal French city, which had been surrounded by the Germans in 1940. He was given command of an area of southern England, as the country prepared for what seemed a likely German invasion. The seesaw British fortunes in North Africa against German and Italian troops, primarily under the command of General (Field Marshal from summer 1942) Erwin Rommel, "The Desert Fox," brought a decision by Prime Minister Winston Churchill to make major command changes in North Africa and the Middle East. When the newly appointed commander of the British Eighth Army* was killed when the Germans shot down his plane, Montgomery, then a Lieutenant-General, was given command of the army in mid August 1942.

Within a short time, Montgomery's energy had lifted the spirits of troops, as he made many a personal visit to the troops in the field. He also received reinforcements and strengthened defensive positions to keep Rommel's forces from further advances, while he plotted offensive operations to inflict a decisive defeat on the Desert Fox. Military historians have debated Montgomery's slow, but steady going as he built up toward the launching of his offensive.** Just a couple of weeks after assuming command, Montgomery's forces halted a major German-Italian attack, inflicting stinging casualties on the enemy, and forcing Rommel to order a withdrawal to his own defensive positions, thus ending Rommel's drive to capture Cairo and the Suez. British air attacks on Rommel's forces were more than a little helpful in the Allied victory.***

Montgomery finally unleashed his offensive against Rommel on October 23, 1942. After heavy fighting, Allied forces broke through the fortified Axis lines (Rommel loved minefields and barbed wire!), and Rommel, contrary to orders from nutcase-in-chief, Hitler, for Rommel's men to fight to the death, ordered a general retreat. As the remnants of the German and Italian forces retreated from Egypt and into Libya, Allied forces invaded French North Africa, far to the rear of Rommel's retreating army. By May 1943, the Axis forces in North Africa surrendered.

The Allies decided to invade the major Italian island of Sicily in July 1943, based largely upon plans put forth by Montgomery. The role given American forces of supporting Montgomery's main effort brought controversy to the Allied commanders, as Americans saw Montgomery as egotistical and condescending. The successful landing was followed by a grueling effort to clear the island of stubborn and effective German resistance.**** Mainland Italy was then invaded in September 1943, including by Montgomery's Eighth Army in the extreme southern part ("heel") of Italy. The Allied advance was halted by stiff German opposition south of Rome, and Montgomery was recalled to Britain to help prepare for the invasion of France.

Montgomery's plan called for the capture of the French city of Caen (in Normandy) by British forces and then a thrust northward, with American forces coming around the outside of advance. Caen was only taken much later than Montgomery anticipated, and after very heavy casualties, and the Allies didn't breakout of Normandy until August (they had landed on June 6, 1944). This was followed by a Montgomery plan to land airborne forces behind the German lines in the Netherlands in mid September 1944, combined with a ground offensive to link up with those forces. A follow up offensive would carry the Allies into Germany to capture the German industrial region (the Ruhr) and end the war quickly. Montgomery's reputation took a tumble, as part of the airborne landing force was cut to pieces by the Germans. The Germans launched a major offensive in mid December 1944 (known to the Allies as the "Battle of the Bulge," due to the 'bulge' created in the American line by the advancing Germans). Montgomery was temporarily given overall command of American forces in the area, and British troops were positioned to prevent a German breakthrough toward their ultimate (and overly optimistic) objective of Antwerp, which would have cut the Allied forces in two. In the later stages of the battle, Montgomery was criticized for not acting to cut off German forces retreating from the "bulge." Eventually British forces crossed the Rhine River into northern Germany and the war ended in May 1945. Montgomery was then commander of the British occupation forces in Germany, and later was named Chief of the Imperial General Staff. He remained controversial for the rest of his life, offering opinions on segregation in South Africa (he supported it) and even on gay rights (he opposed them), and his memoirs caustically criticized many of his associates from the war, including (by then) American President, Dwight Eisenhower, who had been the Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. Outraged Americans wanted the head of "Monty" (as he was more often known), and Eisenhower never contacted him again. Montgomery died in 1976 in England, age 88.

* The Eighth Army was the army headquarters in charge of British and Commonwealth troops in Egypt. At that time, August 1942, Rommel's advance had been halted near the railway station of El Alamein.

** Montgomery's experiences of the terrible casualties of World War One, when waves of men were sacrificed for little or no gain, made him cautious in his operations. He chose to build up his forces to a point where they were pretty much guaranteed victory, due to overwhelming numbers. Some military people criticize his caution; others admire his deliberate pace and attempts to avoid heavy casualties. To be quite honest, there isn't any one correct answer. If you have seen the superb movie, "Patton," this same debate is depicted between Patton and General Omar Bradley during operations on Sicily. Patton, ever the "keep advancing, regardless of casualties" kind of commander, is confronted by the more deliberate Bradley. Patton, Bradley's superior, prevails, and so do the American forces, but at high cost. Patton tells Bradley the casualties would have been even higher had they waited, but these arguments are really never ending.

*** The decisive use of air power by the Allies in ground operations was something of a rarity at that time, as the German use of air power to support their ground forces had been a key component in their victories since the beginning of the war. Montgomery and other Allied commanders took note of the German tactics and turned them to their own advantage, something that lasted until the end of the war. Allied air power was often cited by Rommel for his pessimistic view of the eventual outcome of the war, although he believed a defeat of an Allied landing in France could still save Germany from total defeat. When that landing came (D-Day), Allied air power was so overwhelming, it prevented the timely arrival of German reinforcements to the invasion area, as German armored units (Panzer units), especially, had to do most of their travel at night to avoid being sitting ducks for Allied fighter-bombers. Even when the units arrived at their destinations, they had often already suffered losses to their tank strength from air attacks.

**** While Italian troops far outnumbered German troops on Sicily, many, but certainly not all, Italians chose to give up the fight and surrendered at first chance. Most Italian units involved were composed of reservists. On the other hand, many of the Germans were first class troops, including reinforcements by the highly regarded German paratroopers.

WORD HISTORY:
Small-This word traces back to Indo European "smalo," which had the general meaning "small," a meaning apparently often used of animals. This gave its Old Germanic offspring "smalaz," also with the meaning "small, narrow." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "smael," with the same basic meaning. This then later became "smal," before the modern version. Its other Germanic relatives are: German "schmal," Low German Saxon "small," other Low German "schmaul," Dutch "smal," Frisian "smel," all tending more toward the meaning "narrow," but also in "small," in some cases. Swedish, Danish and Norwegian have two forms, "små" (“small”) and also "smal" ("narrow"). I could not find a form in Icelandic, so I assume it has died out.

The Allies & Berlin, 1945

This is in answer to a very good question posed by a regular reader in one of the comments.
His question: "Why didn't the Americans and Brits take Berlin?"

General Dwight Eisenhower, the overall commander of the Allied forces, made the determination NOT to take Berlin. His decision came in February 1945, not long after the Allies had not only defeated the Germans in the Battle of the Bulge, but had pushed the Germans back toward the Rhine River in western Germany. His decision was based upon the following:

-Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin had already agreed to divide Germany into occupation zones. Berlin, which would lie within the Soviet zone, was also to be divided into occupation zones. This meant that Allied forces, more likely American forces, would have to go through what was to become the Soviet zone to even get to Berlin.

-When Eisenhower made his decision, the Soviets had penetrated deeply into eastern Germany, and, at their closest point, were only about 40 miles from Berlin. On the other hand, the western Allies were perhaps 300-400 miles from Berlin.

-Eisenhower's staff told him it would cost at least 100,000 casualties for the Allies to take Berlin.

When put together, Eisenhower saw: heavy casualties to take a city hundreds of miles away, when the Soviets were already at Berlin's doorstep. Fighting through and taking casualties in territory that would then have to be given over to the Soviets anyway. It should be noted, Churchill wanted Eisenhower to go for Berlin, but the general chose not to do so.

For the Allies to take Berlin "could" have also brought about the "split" between the Allies and the Soviets so dreamed of by Hitler and the other Nazi leaders. The Soviets and Stalin were far more filled with revenge against Hitler and Germans than the Allies,* and they really wanted to take Berlin, regardless of casualties. You can draw your own conclusions, but I think Eisenhower made the right call, given the situation at that time. I know, many argued "later" that Berlin became the center of the "Cold War," but in February/March 1945, the Cold War was in the future.

* The Soviet Union suffered many millions of casualties, including millions of civilians, at the hands of Hitler and the Nazis.

WORD HISTORY:
Prosit/Prost-These words, "prost" is derived from "prosit," are drinking toasts, and were borrowed from German, apparently in the mid 1800s, and are equivalent to English "Cheers!" or "To your health." German borrowed "Prosit" from Latin "prodesse," which meant "be useful, be beneficial," and it is the third person singular present subjunctive of the verb. Subjunctive, also called "subjunctive mood," is used to help express a wish; thus, "may it benefit you." Of course, a few too many "Prosits" will not be beneficial to you...hicc! "Scuse me!" The "pros" part is related to English "for," and the "it" part is related to English "is."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Fifty-Two

Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Five/A
"The End of Hitler's Reich" Part One

The Germans withdrew many of their armored units from the front line in western Europe. Why? Allied intelligence reports indicated the Germans were preparing to defend their homeland, and after the tremendous losses in Normandy and the retreat across France, they were trying to replenish their units for a last stand. This proved to be wrong, as Hitler planned a major offensive against the Americans. He hoped for something of a repeat of 1940's stunning victory over France by breaking through the American lines in the Ardennes region,* as German forces had broken through the French lines at that time in the some region, but this time, unlike in 1940, his armies would turn northward to capture the port city of Antwerp, and thus split the Allied forces, with mainly British and Commonwealth forces to the north, and American forces to the south. With the prospect of the war continuing, the Allies might then negotiate, or so the logic seems to have been. If he could get a treaty with the Western Allies, he then could turn all of his forces against the Soviets. While much of this was nonsense, even a straw floating on the surface looks good to a drowning man.

The plan was daring, but essentially unrealistic. First, the Allies had announced previously that they would only accept "unconditional surrender" from Germany. Historians have debated whether this was the proper Allied policy, as it gave the Germans little choice but to resist, and it gave the Nazis lots of fodder for their propaganda machine to keep the German public behind the war. The memory of the armistice in November 1918 and the subsequent Versailles Treaty made Germans wonder what would be in store for them with "unconditional surrender." The Nazis answered the question for Germans by saying the victors would destroy Germany (as if the Nazis weren't already doing so). There's no question in my mind that Nazi leaders absolutely feared for themselves, for once the victorious powers learned of the extermination camps and the multitude of other atrocities committed with the knowledge, support, and often, the direct participation of the various Nazi leaders, severe punishment would be called for. Trials would certainly follow Germany's defeat, and they knew it.

Further, in 1940, German tanks were much lighter and more agile. By late 1944, German tanks, while some of the best produced by any nation during the war, were necessarily much heavier. Why is this important? Because the Ardennes is a hilly, forested area with a limited number of narrow roads. The region is largely countryside, with small villages dotting the landscape. These heavy tanks would have to navigate these narrow roads in order to get through the American lines and then race for Antwerp. Not only that, heavier tanks meant more fuel consumption, and that meant more vehicle traffic along those same narrow roads, as the supply units sought to keep the tanks and motorized units rolling forward. And then too, in 1940, the German army was well trained and fresh. By late 1944, after suffering hundreds of thousands of casualties on all fronts just since summer, German units, especially infantry and motorized infantry units, were badly under strength. Replacements were often quickly rushed to front line units without full training, and a fair number of these men had been transferred from naval units or from the Luftwaffe, where they no longer fulfilled a necessary role, but morale then also became a problem. Additionally, experienced officers at every level had suffered heavy casualties which could not be easily replaced. Unlike 1940, the Luftwaffe did not rule the skies, and Allied aircraft would be able to pounce on moving German columns, especially along those narrow roads mentioned above. All in all, it just wasn't 1940.

One thing was like 1940. Like the French, the Americans "assumed" the Ardennes would be a "quiet sector," due to the difficult terrain. It was lightly held, and some of the units there were just recently arrived in Europe and did not have much combat experience. Other units had experience, perhaps too much so, but just as the German units had to be replenished due to casualties, these American units received replacements, but again, these were not experienced men. Now these forces would have to face a major German offensive, and while it was not 1940 again for the German army, the Germans were still deadly. Also, weather conditions during that time of year would help keep Allied planes from hovering over the battlefield, giving the German forces one less problem, although it turned out to be only a temporary respite.

The attack came on the morning of December 16, 1944. Hitler had moved to a temporary headquarters in western Germany, near Bad Nauheim in Hessen, to oversee the offensive. The German forces penetrated American lines in places, but not all, and the clogged roads proved to be a major headache for their armored and supply units, as I noted above. Thousands of Americans were killed or surrendered, but thousands held out, especially at a key road center, the town of Bastogne. Try though they might, the Germans could not dislodge the Americans, and eventually the offensive sputtered to a halt. The maps showed a huge "bulge" in the American lines where the Germans had broken through, and to the Western Allies the battle thus became known as "The Battle of the Bulge."

In early 1945, the Germans launched another, but smaller, offensive in Alsace, but it too soon broke down. A daring air attack by German fighter planes often flying below radar struck Allied airfields on January 1, 1945, and while there was limited success in destroying aircraft still on the ground, the Luftwaffe suffered further irreplaceable casualties, while the Allies quickly made up for their losses.

* The Ardennes lies largely in eastern Belgium, including the German populated area of Eupen-Malmedy, but also in a portion of northern Luxembourg.

WORD HISTORY:
State (Status)-This noun goes back to the Indo European root "sta," which meant "to stand, be standing." This gave its Latin offspring "stare" (not the same as the English word), also meaning "to stand," which produced the derived "status," meaning "how things stand, condition." Status was borrowed from Latin into English in the late 1600s as a term for a person's "legal standing." It has since expanded in meaning beyond the legal sense to "person's or matter's condition," as in, "What's the status of my online order?" "State," a derivative of "status" ("What's the 'state' of my online order?") was borrowed into English in the 1200s. The idea of "the ruling power of a country, or region, government," came from the idea of "the condition of the nation." This then came to be applied to the "government." The verb form of "state," "to say things," came from the noun, and ties in with the word's basic connection with the meaning "stand;" thus "place words in a standing order," or "put words on the record," and the derived word "statement" still typically carries the notion of being "official" ("The mayor issued a statement"). German also borrowed the word "state" (with the government meaning), as "Staat" (Low German and Dutch use the same spelling). Other Germanic languages have similar words, also from borrowings.

The German Question, Part One Hundred Fifty

Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Four/A
"The End Draws Near"

While Germany was under heavy aerial bombardment and its military was in retreat in much of Russia by mid 1944,* the fact is, Hitler still controlled much of Europe, but that was about to change. The Allies captured Rome on June 4, 1944 and the Germans retreated to northern Italy where they again dug in and held the Allies back until near the end of the war.**

Along the coast of western Europe the Germans awaited the Allied invasion. In early June, terrible weather conditions stretching from Britain and into northwestern France convinced German leaders that the Allies could not launch an invasion at that moment. In a daring decision during a respite in the bad weather, General Eisenhower, the overall head of Allied military forces, gave the order for the invasion to proceed. On June 6, 1944 Allied forces landed in the Normandy area of France. Field Marshal Rommel, the German commander in that area, away in Germany for his wife's birthday, a decision taken because of the bad weather, rushed back to France to lead the German defense, but any chance of preventing the Allies from gaining a major foothold had already been lost, and the Germans shifted plans to trying to contain the Allied invasion. After nearly two months of bloody fighting, the Allied armies broke out of Normandy and headed for the German and Belgian borders. Paris fell to the Allies in late August. Meanwhile in southern France, the Allies carried out a second landing and, facing much less determined resistance than in Normandy, advanced northward toward Germany.

In Russia, just a couple of weeks after the Allied invasion of France, the Soviets launched a massive offensive against German forces located primarily in White Russia (Belorussia, now largely Belarus). The Soviets overwhelmed the badly outnumbered Germans and raced for Poland. By the time the offensive halted, the Red Army stood just outside of Warsaw, and the Germans had suffered somewhere between 300,000 and 400,000 killed, wounded or captured. In Warsaw, Polish freedom fighters rose against the German occupation, expecting help from the nearby Red Army, but the Soviets did nothing, and the Germans ruthlessly crushed the uprising.***

Further, the Red Army broke into Rumania (also spelled "Romania"), a German ally, and that country surrendered in August, and then declared war on Germany. Finland, another German ally, signed an armistice in September. Bulgaria, another German ally, also declared war on Germany under Soviet pressure.****

Back in western Europe, the Allied drive toward Germany began to sputter, as supply lines lengthened and German resistance stiffened. In an attempt to bring the war to a conclusion before winter, the Allies tried a daring operation in mid September. They carried out large paratroop operations in the Netherlands (still German occupied), dropping thousands of paratroops behind German lines near the Dutch-German border. A ground offensive was launched in conjunction with these airborne operations in the hope of gaining a quick and easier route into Germany's Ruhr industrial region. The idea was, with the Ruhr captured, the German war machine could not function effectively. The operation failed, as the Germans reacted quickly and decisively, and the Allies suffered thousands of casualties. While fighting elsewhere along the German border areas continued, there was a bit of a lull as winter approached. That would soon change, as Hitler had plans.

Next... "German Heroes: The Plot Against Hitler"

* The siege of Leningrad had been broken by Soviet forces in January, 1944.

** After his rescue by the Germans in September 1943, Mussolini was put in charge of the German occupied part of Italy, which was called "The Italian Social Republic." He raised his own military forces, used primarily to combat a tough Italian resistance movement that had developed in the mountainous north. Essentially Italy was in civil war.

*** Stalin, every bit as plotting as Hitler, preferred not to have Polish forces outside of his control, as the forces in Warsaw were; thus he let the Germans destroy these "free" Polish forces. Stalin had his own plans for post-war Poland, with the Soviet Union taking much of eastern Poland, and with the remainder of Poland being pro-Soviet.

**** Bulgaria is an interesting case. Although an Axis ally, Bulgaria had never declared war on the Soviet Union. When the Soviet armies approached the country in early September 1944, the Soviets simply declared war on Bulgaria and entered the country. The Bulgarians then declared war on Germany. 

WORD HISTORY:
Stalag-This word for a German prisoner-of-war camp was borrowed into English during the World War Two era. It is really a contraction of "Stammlager," a compound, with both parts having closely related words in English: For "stem" see:

http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2012/05/making-choice-part-one.html

For "lager/lair" see: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2011/02/german-question-part-eighty-one.html

Gestapo-Another word borrowed into English during the Nazi era, it is a contraction of "Geheime Staatspolizei;" that is, "Secret State Police." (Note: The German adjective "geheim" is a word derived from "Heim," a close relative of English "home." Interestingly, German "geheim" (the noun for "a secret" is "(das) Geheimnis") didn't become common with the meaning "secret" until the 1600s!^ The idea behind the meaning goes to your home being private and personal; thus, eventually, the word developed the meaning "something kept private;" thus, "secretive." English "homely" is a word closely related to German "heimlich," another adjective meaning "secretive, having to do with things done in private." While the word "homely" originally meant "of the home, personal, familiar," it also later developed a meaning of "plain, unattractive," and even "ugly," that meaning is now used more in American English (Canadian?), but like its German cousin "heimlich," it also meant "private, personal."  

^ German "geheim" also was borrowed by Dutch, and seemingly also West Frisian, as both languages have "geheim," while Low German has "geheem," but whether this "may" be an original development that simply took the "secret" meaning. 

The German Question, Part Seventy-Eight

"Kaiser Wilhelm & World War I" Part Two/H "The Germans At War"
"Last Grasp At Victory"

With Russia out of the war, General Ludendorff and the Germans turned their newly available units against the Allies in France and Belgium in hopes of securing victory before America's entry into the war could have much influence.* Several offensives were launched between March and July 1918, and the Germans came close to Paris, even shelling the city with long range artillery, but in the end, the offensives could not make the final breakthrough of the Allied lines. By August, the Allies had turned the tables and launched a major offensive of their own. A German victory was no longer possible.

* The initial offensive was launched just before the United States entered the war, but America's entry was already anticipated.

WORD HISTORY:
Rock-I'm only dealing with the verb form in this article, not the most common noun; that is, the word meaning "stone." The other noun, "rock;" the most commonly used form being the shortened form of "rock-n-roll," is derived from the verb. So "rock," meaning "to sway, to move, to move back and forth/to and fro," is from the Germanic base "rukk," but beyond that, its origins are not known. This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "roccian," which then became "rokken," before the modern spelling. It has relatives among some of the other Germanic languages: German has "rücken," meaning "to move, to shift something from one place to another by pushing, often jerkily." On that meaning in German, it specifically means to move something by pushing it, but not by lifting. In order to do so with heavy objects, we often move the item "back and forth, or jerkily." That shows the tie to the English "sway" meaning. Swedish has rycka "to pull quickly, jerk" (again the idea of movement and back and forth). Dutch has "rukken," meaning "to pull, tug," Danish has "rykke," meaning "to move." Apparently forms have died out in the other Germanic languages.