The Desert Fox, The Movie & History

I first saw this 1951 movie in the 1960s on NBC's Saturday Night at the Movies, which showed movies for their first time on television. The film was based upon a popular book, "Rommel: The Desert Fox," * by British officer Desmond Young, who served in North Africa with the Indian forces stationed there during World War Two (India was still a British colony at that time). German General/Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, has enjoyed a popular and respected place in the history of the world's worst war, as even the British and Commonwealth forces that opposed him heaped praise upon him at times, and this movie does much the same (remember, this movie was made just six years after the war ended). After a few decades of praise for Rommel, historians turned to scrutinizing the former field marshal's record, and such scrutiny was not a bad thing, in my opinion. The thing is, like many Germans, including those of the German officer corps, Rommel's association with Hitler and the Nazis is not always easy to untangle. In essence, all were tainted to some degree, including highly respected senior general Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt. Rommel was much liked by Hitler, probably somewhat because he was not from the German nobility, another segment of German society with a mixed record with the Nazis. He also became a favorite of Nazi propagandist Joseph Goebbels during the war. As for Rommel's association with Hitler, early in the war, the fanatical furious Führer chose Rommel to lead his escort battalion, a highly trained army (not SS) unit that provided security for Hitler. 

Like American general, George Patton, Rommel was insubordinate at times, but like Patton, he was also known for appearing anywhere on the battlefield. In the movie, one of Rommel's subordinate commanders in North Africa, General Bayerlein (pronounced as if, "buyer-line"), played by George Macready, tells the headquarters staff, after repeated attempts to reach Rommel in the field, that he wishes they had a commander with at least a little bit of cowardice about him, so he would report back to his headquarters occasionally. The biggest "plus" to the Allied view of Rommel's record was his "participation" in the plot to kill Hitler in 1944, although the extent of Rommel's involvement is still debated and likely it will never be truly known in great detail. The movie shows Rommel's anguish as he gradually comes to terms with the need to rid Germany of Hitler. At first he makes excuses for Hitler and he blames the crowd around Hitler for Germany's growing prospect of defeat. To be quite honest, the movie's portrayal of Rommel's participation in the plot is probably close to what it actually was; that is, Rommel certainly knew of the plot, but he didn't report it, which indeed made him complicit in it, although admirably so. Any further role Rommel had with the plotters is just not completely known; after all, everything had to be very secret, lest the Gestapo and other Nazi agents find out about it, so few written records were kept, but the fact that Hitler wanted Rommel dead speaks volumes as to what the Nazis knew, or, at least, thought they knew.    

The movie deals with Rommel's life from about the time of the decisive Battle of El Alamein in Egypt, which began in the summer of 1942. Rommel, played by James Mason, is first seen returning a salute from captured British Lieutenant-Colonel Desmond Young (played by himself). Young tells how, after the war, he decided to find out what had actually happened to Rommel, since the Nazi line had been that the renowned field marshal had died from wounds he had suffered during the battle in Normandy, in July 1944. He mentions that to compile the story, besides using Rommel's papers and official records in Germany and England, he talked with Rommel's son Manfred, his widow Lucie, with Germans who had served with him and with some who had served under his command, and with British troops who had fought against him. 

The scene shifts to the British offensive at El Alamein, with Young noting that Rommel was in Germany recovering from nasal diphtheria at the time of the attack, but that he immediately returned to North Africa to take command.** There is a lot of actual World War Two combat footage incorporated into the movie for the large scale battle scenes. Rommel finally admits that his forces can't keep up the fighting, and that they need to retreat to fight another day. Meanwhile, Hitler (played by Luther Adler) sends a message that there is to be no retreat, only "victory or death." At first Rommel seems inclined to obey the order, as it is from Hitler himself, but then Bayerlein tells him that obeying would double the madness, and that it is an order to throw away an entire army. Rommel gives the order to retreat. The movie quickly moves to the surrender of the German and Italian forces in North Africa in May of 1943, but with the explanation that prior to the surrender, Rommel had again returned to Germany due to illness. 

We next see Rommel in the hospital in Germany, visited by his wife Lucie (played by Jessica Tandy), his son Manfred (played by William Reynolds) and the Lord Mayor of Stuttgart, Dr. Karl Strölin (played by Cedric Hardwicke), who is on the Gestapo list to be "watched." After Rommel tells Strölin that Hitler knows that none of the Allies will negotiate a peace settlement with him, Strölin says that "abdication" is the answer, but Rommel bristles at the idea, and Lucie brings the visit to an immediate end to relieve the tension. When Strölin leaves, he is followed by a Gestapo agent, but Strölin manages to lose him. 

Rommel checks the German defenses in France and then meets with the commander-in-chief of the German forces in western Europe, Field Marshal von Rundstedt (played by Leo G. Carroll).*** Von Rundstedt, known for his little quips and bluntness, tells Rommel that neither of them will really be in charge of much of anything when the Allies invade, because "the Bohemian Corporal himself is assuming sole and total command of this operation."**** He also tells Rommel to be wary, as he will be under constant observation by "friends of the management." 

Rommel returns home and receives another visit from Strölin, ***** who tells Rommel there are some very respected people, military, religious, labor, and government, who want to end Hitler's rule. Rommel immediately throws up the "soldier's duty is to obey" defense, prompting Strölin to tell Rommel to stop hiding behind his uniform. When the Field Marshal orders Strölin to leave, he tells Rommel that he knows his true feelings about Hitler and the war, because Lucie has told him. This stuns Rommel.  

The Allies successfully invade France and Rommel and von Rundstedt confer. The old field marshal tells Rommel that Hitler believes the real invasion is yet to come and that Hitler is following his usual pattern of hold at all costs, no retreat and "victory or death." Von Rundstedt says he wishes he had a free hand and that the Allies would know they had fought an army, "not a series of stationary targets. He'll never lets us, of course. You know how firm corporals are." (That is such a GREAT line!) Rommel discusses with von Rundstedt the idea of overthrowing Hitler, and asks the respected commander, if he would receive any of the plotters, if they asked his advice, to which von Rundstedt replies, "Oh no, it's too late." Rommel assumes he means the war is so far gone that even an overthrow of the Nazi government couldn't save Germany, but the Field Marshal corrects him, and tells him he means that it is too late for himself, as at his age (the picture says 70, but he was 68 at that point), "I'm too old to revolt. Too old to challenge authority, however evil." After telling one of  Hitler's staff generals, Field Marshal Keitel, "make peace, you idiots" (German: "den Krieg beended, ihr Idioten"), he says to Rommel that he's not too old to wish him and "his friends" the best of luck in their plans. (Historically, after that remark, von Rundstedt was fired by Hitler the very next day, although von Rundstedt was brought back in a couple of months.) 

Rommel goes to meet Hitler personally at Margival, France, and the meeting shows Rommel the nutcase Hitler really is. While on the road in Normandy on July 17, 1944, Rommel's car is strafed by a British plane and he is seriously injured (historically, fractures to his skull and facial wounds). Just three days later the plot to assassinate Hitler was carried out, with a bomb carried into a military conference by Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg. The bomb exploded, but failed to kill Hitler, who was only injured. He took quick revenge.****** This is all depicted in the movie. In October, with Rommel still recovering at home, he receives a call from Keitel to receive a couple of officers being dispatched to him. Rommel assumes it is about a new command. When the officers arrive, they tell Rommel there is substantial evidence against him for treason. At first he wants to fight the charge in court, but is told, "the verdict is already in." He is also told that they have brought a quick acting poison and that if he takes the poison, his wife and son will be taken care of and it will be announced that he died of his wounds. While reluctant, concern for his family matters more, and he accepts the "offer." He says goodbye to his wife, and then to his son (but doesn't tell him he will be dead in a few minutes). He gets into the car with the officers and it drives off. The movie ends with film and a description of his most famous exploits and then a quote of Winston Churchill honoring Rommel.  (Note: Richard Boone appears several times in the film as Rommel's military aide, Captain [German: Hauptmann] Hermann Aldinger, who indeed was his historical aide.)   

* The Desert Fox, in German der Wüstenfuchs, and the German compound word is closely related to English "waste" (see Word history below), although English tends to use "wasteland" to equal "desert," and of course, German "Fuchs" is English "fox." For the history of the word "fox," this is the link to the article: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2011/08/german-question-part-one-hundred-forty_20.html 

** In Rommel's absence, General Georg Stumme, who had commanded a corps on the Eastern Front, was sent to North Africa. On the day after the opening of the British offensive, Stumme apparently suffered a heart attack while in the field, as his body was found with no wounds, after his staff car had come under attack. 

*** Three things: first, the movie makes numerous mention of "Berlin" sending orders, but in reality, after Hitler launched the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, he and the key officers of the German High Command were seldom in Berlin, as Hitler preferred his military headquarters near Rastenburg, in northeastern Germany (East Prussia), or his villa in southern Germany above Berchtesgaden. Second, the film shows von Rundstedt, Rommel and other high ranking officers giving the Hitler salute to one another. This most certainly did not happen; at least, not at that point in the war, as the traditional military salute was used. After the bomb was placed in Hitler's headquarters in July 1944, the Nazi salute was mandated, but I don't recall if that included between officers. Of course, the Nazi salute had always been part of the SS, a Nazi organization. Third, while Rommel and von Rundstedt were both field marshals, von Rundstedt was the senior commander and in western Europe, Rommel was subordinate to von Rundstedt, and the movie correctly shows that relationship. 

**** Hitler had been born on the border of Austria and Germany, in an area near the Czech lands of Bohemia, once a part of the Old German Empire. During World War I, Hitler served in the German army and rose to the rank of corporal; thus, von Rundstedt referred to him, derogatorily, as "the Bohemian corporal" ("böhmischer Gefreiter") a term he likely learned from Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, the late president of Germany, who used the term to describe Hitler in the early 1930s.    

***** It should be understood, Karl Strölin was a longtime Nazi and an official in the Nazi Party, but he began to become disenchanted during the war. While suspected of being involved in the bomb plot against Hitler in 1944, the Nazis could not obtain evidence against him, but he was dismissed from his position in the party. 

****** For more detail on the bomb plot, here are two links: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2013/07/heroes-against-hitler-overview.html

 http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2013/07/heroes-against-hitler-colonel-klaus-von.html

Photo is from the 2003 20th Century Fox DVD

WORD HISTORY:
Waste-This word, with noun, verb, and adjective forms, and distantly related to "vast," goes back to Indo European "euehst," which had the notion of "empty, lacking, absent, alone, abandoned, desolate." This gave its Old Germanic offspring the verb form "wostijanan," which meant, "to make desolate, to ruin, to ravage." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "westan," with the same meaning. The Indo European form also gave West Germanic the noun "wosti," which meant "a waste(land)." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "westen," meaning "waste(land), wilderness." In western Europe, the Germanic tribe the Franks had the related "wostijan," which was borrowed into Old Northern French as "waster" ("to ruin, to spoil, to lay waste to"). When the Normans went to England the existing English word and the French word merged. The same thing happened with the noun. German has the verb "wüsten" (to waste, to squander), also the verb, "verwüsten" (to ravage, to lay waste, to devastate) and the noun "Wüste" (desert, desolate area); Low German Saxon "Wööst" (desert, wasteland); Dutch has the adjective "woest" (bleak, desolate, also fierce, savage, from the notion of making things desolate) and the noun "woestijn" (desert); West Frisian "woastine" (desert).

"The Longest Day" Very Good D-Day Movie

"The Longest Day" is a  star-studded movie* from the early 1960s available on DVD. The movie is "based" on a historical book of the same name by Irish historian Cornelius Ryan.** Rather than go with a straightforward retelling of the D-Day operation, Ryan chose to use the individual stories of some of the real people involved, on both sides, to tell the overall story of the great invasion of June 6, 1944. The movie was filmed in black and white, although I'm not really certain if that was a money saving measure for the expensive film, or if it was purposely done to give the movie a sort of newsreel feel or to make it more in line with films of the World War Two era, when color films were still pretty rare.

"The Longest Day" was filmed in the manner of the book, with individual stories used to paint a bigger picture. Remember, this is not truly a documentary, although there is most certainly a basis in fact to many of the scenes, but as with all such movies, scriptwriters consolidate real historical events into more limited numbers of scenes to get their point across. Several military participants from the real D-Day battle, both Allied and German, were consulted about the movie's filming.*** The movie only deals with the build up to the D-Day landings, including Eisenhower's decision to go ahead with the invasion, and then the landings themselves on that first day, including the glider landings and paratroop drops made in the overnight hours by the Allies. Scenes go back and forth from action scenes to scenes at German defensive positions and German headquarters, to show how the German commanders reacted to the initial reports of Allied actions.**** All in all, it is a pretty impressive film and well worth seeing.

* The cast includes for example: John Wayne, Henry Fonda, Robert Mitchum, Richard Burton, Sean Connery, Eddie Albert, Peter Lawford, Sal Mineo, Kenneth More, Robert Ryan, Gert Fröbe, Curd Jürgens and many, many more, including a number of French actors/actresses, and several German actors, known for their war movie roles, although not likely known to the general world public by name. NOTE: German actor Gert Fröbe became internationally known for his role in the James Bond movie, "Goldfinger." Fröbe's acting career was controversial for a time, as he had been a member of the Nazi Party during much of the 1930s, although he then seemingly halted participation in party activities before the war. A Jewish family praised him for his help in saving them from the clutches of the Gestapo. German actor Curd Jürgens was locked up by the Nazis during the war for his anti-Nazi views. For more on Fröbe, see: http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2012/08/the-james-bond-movie-goldfinger-was-once-banned-in-israel/

** The title came from a quote by German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, who, about six weeks prior to the Allied invasion, had told his aide that the decisive battle would be "the longest day" for the Allies and for Germany ("Für die Alliierten und für Deutschland wird es der längste Tag sein").

*** There were still criticisms of the movie; for instance, one being that the dummy paratroops dropped to distract the Germans were too sophisticated in the movie as compared to the real dummies used by the Allies. Also, the movie strongly "suggests" that the Germans only used two aircraft to attack the Allies on D-Day, which was untrue, but the fact was, the Luftwaffe was limited in its use during the invasion. The most stinging criticism has been that Canadian forces are not even shown in the movie!

**** For those learning German or wanting to test their German skills, the German scenes are all realistically done in German (never fear, there are English subtitles), with these German scenes directed by Austrian actor-director Bernhard Wicki, who was imprisoned for a time by the Nazis in Sachsenhausen concentration camp near Berlin. There are also some French language scenes, also with subtitles.

WORD HISTORY:
Two (Twain)-This common word goes back to Indo European "dwoh/dwah/duwo," which meant "two." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "twaina," with the same meaning. This gave Old English "twegan," which was an old form (masculine, in grammar terms) of "two." This later became "tweyne" (the "e" blended with the "g" to produce the "ai" sound), before the modern version "twain." "Twegan's" feminine and neuter forms (again, feminine and neuter in grammar) was "twa," which then became "two" (the "w" was pronounced), where it has remained for many centuries, although the pronunciation later changed to "too/tu."  Low German, Dutch and Frisian once had "twene," Old High German had "zwene," and Old Norse had "tveir," all corresponding to English "twain." Low German and Dutch have "twee," German has "zwei" and "zwo," West Frisian has "twa," Saterland Frisian (a surviving form of East Frisian in northern Germany) has "two," Danish and Norwegian have "to," Icelandic has "tvö," and Swedish has "twå," all corresponding to English "two."

Heroes Against Hitler, Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg

I first published this article on November 9, 2011.

"Colonel Claus Graf (=Count) von Stauffenberg"

The man who nearly killed Hitler was born in eastern Swabia, a part of Bavaria, although the German dialect (German: Schwäbisch or Swabian in English) is not Bavarian, but rather it is more closely related to Swiss German and Alsatian German, located in that same overall region. A devout Catholic, his religious beliefs may have had an influence on his later opposition to Hitler and the Nazis, although not all historians agree on that. His first love was the cavalry, and he became an officer, although by the mid to late 1930s, traditional horse cavalry were giving way to mechanized cavalry. Stauffenberg began to have serious doubts about Hitler when the Führer sent troops to occupy the remainder of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, after the little nation had ceded German populated regions to Germany just six months earlier. He served in the campaigns in Poland in September 1939 and in France in May-June 1940. Like many Germans, Stauffenberg favored the reclaiming of territories lost to Poland after World War One. During the German invasion of the Soviet Union, Stauffenberg served as a staff officer in the army high command, not in a field unit. He tried to help change or limit German ill treatment of Soviet civilians, including Jews, and Soviet prisoners of war in the early months of the German invasion, but the brutal and murderous policies pushed Stauffenberg to embrace other German officers in opposition to Hitler.

Early in 1943 Stauffenberg was sent to Tunisia in North Africa, where German and Italian forces, under the operational control of Field Marshal Rommel, were trying to prevent the total loss of North Africa to the Allies. Just a month before the final Axis surrender there, Stauffenberg was severely wounded, losing his right hand, two fingers on his left hand, and his left eye, over which he eventually wore a black patch. It took several months in the hospital and further convalescence at home before Stauffenberg was able to resume service, this time as a staff officer at the headquarters of the Ersatzheer (Replacement Army), which was located in Berlin.* The Replacement Army had a number of anti-Nazi conspirators and plans for a takeover of Germany were developed, but most were not put into operation, while others failed, or had to be changed due to important Nazi leaders not being present. Eventually Stauffenberg carried a bomb-laden briefcase into Hitler's headquarters in northeastern Germany. The briefcase was placed under the conference table, just a short distance from Hitler, and Stauffenberg excused himself by saying he had to make a phone call. Just a few minutes later the bomb exploded, but Hitler, though shaken and bruised, survived, as one of the officers had moved the briefcase to the other side of the table support, and thus further away from Hitler, with the table support deflecting some of the direct affects of the blast. Stauffenberg witnessed the explosion from a distance and managed to get through the headquarters' security, convinced Hitler was dead. He flew back to Berlin and found that plans for the takeover of the government had not really moved, as many conspirators were uncertain about Hitler's death. Word came that Hitler was very much alive and Colonel General Fromm, the commander of the Replacement Army, and aware of the plot,** now tried to save himself by having Stauffenberg and other conspirators arrested, tried and executed in the early morning hours of July 21, 1944. There is a memorial in the courtyard where Stauffenberg and the other plotters were executed. Its heading reads: "Here Died For Germany" ("Hier Starben Für Deutschland"), and then it lists the names of the executed men. These men and hundreds more were executed for the attempt to kill Hitler. They weren't perfect, and many had supported Hitler earlier, but they saw evil and tried to do stop it. That makes them heroes in my book.

The information I've provided here is very basic. There are numerous detailed books on the July 20 plot, as well as the overall German Resistance movement. A very good source, and one I used, is by German historian Joachim Fest, "Plotting Hitler's Death, The Story of the German Resistance," Metropolitan Books, New York, 1996, published in the original German as "Staatsstreich, Der Lange Weg zum 20. Juli," Berlin, 1994 (translation:. "Coup, The Long Way (or Path) to July 20")

For more, see my article in "The German Question" series on the plot:
http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2011/08/german-question-part-one-hundred-fifty_29.html

* The Replacement Army was in charge of inducting men into the army and then training and equipping them for service with units in the field. Germany was divided into numerous military districts (Wehrkreise), with various training units stationed in each district under the control of the Replacement Army. Collectively these units totaled many hundreds of thousands of men. A number of anti-Nazi conspirators were in high positions in the Replacement Army, and they planned to use these substantial forces to secure control of Germany by disarming SS units and other Nazi formations, if Hitler were arrested or killed.

** Fromm's depth of involvement in the plot has been a subject of debate (after all, he had some of the main conspirators killed), but by all accounts, he knew of the plot and did not report it. That certainly implicated him. The Gestapo investigation did not uncover direct evidence against Fromm, but he was removed from the army a couple of months later. Just two months before the war ended, Fromm was sentenced to death by the Nazi court and the sentence was carried out only days later (by firing squad). Even with the walls crashing down around them, the Nazis pursued their enemies at home.

WORD HISTORY:
My/Mine-"My" is simply a shortened form of "mine," which was used to show possession by being placed before nouns. Both go back to Indo European "meyn." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "minaz," which then gave Anglo-Saxon (Old English) "min" (long "i" sound). By the 1100s or early 1200s, the shortened form had developed as its own distinctive word to show possession, "mi," and later "my," although "min" (also "myn") stuck around for quite awhile for use before words beginning with a vowel; thus it is still found in old Bibles. Of course "mine" is still with us to show possession, but instead of showing possession before a noun, it comes afterward: "That is my book," but "That book is mine." Common throughout the other Germanic languages: West Frisian "myn," Dutch "mijn," German "mein," but in Bavarian dialect "mei," Low German Saxon "mien," Icelandic "minn," Swedish, Norwegian and Danish "min."

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Eisenhower, Part Two

"Dwight D. Eisenhower" Part 2

In the early summer of 1942 Eisenhower was put in charge of U.S. forces in the "European Theater of Operations" in England, and when Allied forces invaded "French North Africa"* in November 1942, Eisenhower was made Supreme Commander of these forces. During the course of operations in North Africa, then in Sicily, and then on mainland Italy, Eisenhower was confronted by the problems of a multi-national military coalition of American, Free French, and British (and Commonwealth) forces, all with prominent commanders not known for holding their egos in check.** Perhaps his prior experience with General MacArthur helped him, as he navigated this difficult terrain, pitted with egotistical personalities, with more than passing marks, although bruised egos were not uncommon. With North Africa and Sicily cleared of Axis forces, and with an ongoing slogging bout as the Germans slowly retreated up the Italian "boot," Allied emphasis shifted to an invasion of France, and Eisenhower was made its Supreme Commander.

As the Supreme Allied Commander, Eisenhower was in overall charge of planning for the massive invasion to be conducted against German forces defending Hitler's "Atlantic Wall."*** One of the key questions involved where the Allies would actually land. The easiest (in terms of distance) and thus the most inviting area was right across the English Channel in the area of the French city of Calais. It was in this area, however, that the "Atlantic Wall" was much more of a reality, causing Eisenhower and Allied leaders to look elsewhere to increase the chances of a successful landing. Somewhat further down the French coast, and thus further from embarkation ports in England, **** lay the area of Normandy. Here the Germans had been trying to make this portion of the "Atlantic Wall" a reality, but their efforts had not been completed by the early summer of 1944. This area was chosen by the Allies for the invasion. French Resistance forces were employed to help disrupt German communications and transportation networks leading to what would become the battle area. An aerial bombing campaign was also used to damage and disrupt all sorts of transportation facilities throughout France to inhibit German reinforcements from reaching the critical area before the landing had gained a foothold. Now came the big decision...when to land.

* "French North Africa" was composed of the French possessions of French Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, all with sea coast along the Mediterranean Sea. While France had surrendered to Germany in 1940, the surrender agreement permitted limited French military forces to remain in her colonies, as well as in a portion of France itself, usually called "Vichy France," as Paris and the periphery of France along the Atlantic was under German occupation. Upon the Allied invasion of French North Africa, Germany occupied most of "Vichy France," with Italy occupying a segment along the Mediterranean (essentially the "French Riviera").

** Eisenhower had to deal military leaders like Bernhard Montgomery (Britain), Charles deGaulle (Free French), and U.S. generals, George Patton and Mark Clark. He also had to deal with his superiors, Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill.

*** The "Atlantic Wall" was part bluff and part reality. Huge artillery pieces in reinforced concrete emplacements were meant to intimidate Allied invasion planners and any Allied troops assigned for landing operations, as well as to boost German morale to repel any invasion. Nazi propaganda films touted these guns and other fortifications with these purposes in mind. The thing about the big guns was, intimidating as they were, they could only fire out to sea, as they were in fixed fortifications. Once Allied troops landed, the guns could not be turned for use against targets on land. It wasn't until early 1944, after Field Marshal Erwin Rommel was given command of the German forces likely to face the invasion, that much better defensive preparations were made to defeat an Allied invasion. Rommel firmly believed the invasion forces would have to be stopped at the water's edge, before gaining a foothold on the beaches. He had millions of mines laid along beach areas of northwestern France, and he had various underwater obstacles installed to hinder Allied landing craft. Further, many inland areas were flooded and fitted with mines and traps to prohibit Allied paratroopers from landing behind the beach areas. It was under Rommel's command that the "Atlantic Wall" became much more of a reality, especially at certain key points, rather than a propaganda ploy.

**** Not only were troops and equipment to be sent out from these areas for the initial landing, but also supplies had to be sent on a continuing basis once troops were on the beaches or had advanced inland.

WORD HISTORY:
Stag-The origins of this word are very uncertain. There are some theories about the early history of the word, but they are just theories. It is likely, but not a certainty, that English borrowed the word in the 1100s as "stagga" from Old Norse "steggr," a term which was used for a couple of adult male animals. Where Old Norse got the word is unknown, although some connect it to Old Germanic (Old Norse is a Germanic language), but that connection is very dubious, in my opinion. Why it was used in English only for an adult male deer is unclear. Later it became "stagge," before the modern version. In America during the mid 1800s, the word took on the slang meaning of "relating to males only" (usually in "stag party"), and also, "solitary male" ("go stag;" that is, "go to a social function without female accompaniment").

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Montgomery

"Sir Bernard Law Montgomery"

By far the most famous British commander of World War Two, Montgomery was born in London, the son of an Anglican clergyman. He later studied at Sandhurst Military Academy. After graduation his unit was sent to India, then a British colony, but the unit was then sent to France when World War One started, and Montgomery was severely wounded and almost killed there in the fall of 1914. After recuperating, he was again sent to France as a staff officer. After the war he received various promotions and assignments, including service in Ireland prior to its independence from Britain, but he also returned to India and served in the Middle East. By 1938 Montgomery was in command of a division in Palestine, then under British rule (termed a "mandate"), and his division was involved in suppressing revolts by the local non-Jewish, mainly Arab, population.

Montgomery returned to Britain not long before the outbreak of World War Two. He and his new division were sent to France right after Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939. Montgomery and his division were returned to Britain as part of the massive (and highly successful) evacuation from Dunkirk, a northern coastal French city, which had been surrounded by the Germans in 1940. He was given command of an area of southern England, as the country prepared for what seemed a likely German invasion. The seesaw British fortunes in North Africa against German and Italian troops, primarily under the command of General (Field Marshal from summer 1942) Erwin Rommel, "The Desert Fox," brought a decision by Prime Minister Winston Churchill to make major command changes in North Africa and the Middle East. When the newly appointed commander of the British Eighth Army* was killed when the Germans shot down his plane, Montgomery, then a Lieutenant-General, was given command of the army in mid August 1942.

Within a short time, Montgomery's energy had lifted the spirits of troops, as he made many a personal visit to the troops in the field. He also received reinforcements and strengthened defensive positions to keep Rommel's forces from further advances, while he plotted offensive operations to inflict a decisive defeat on the Desert Fox. Military historians have debated Montgomery's slow, but steady going as he built up toward the launching of his offensive.** Just a couple of weeks after assuming command, Montgomery's forces halted a major German-Italian attack, inflicting stinging casualties on the enemy, and forcing Rommel to order a withdrawal to his own defensive positions, thus ending Rommel's drive to capture Cairo and the Suez. British air attacks on Rommel's forces were more than a little helpful in the Allied victory.***

Montgomery finally unleashed his offensive against Rommel on October 23, 1942. After heavy fighting, Allied forces broke through the fortified Axis lines (Rommel loved minefields and barbed wire!), and Rommel, contrary to orders from nutcase-in-chief, Hitler, for Rommel's men to fight to the death, ordered a general retreat. As the remnants of the German and Italian forces retreated from Egypt and into Libya, Allied forces invaded French North Africa, far to the rear of Rommel's retreating army. By May 1943, the Axis forces in North Africa surrendered.

The Allies decided to invade the major Italian island of Sicily in July 1943, based largely upon plans put forth by Montgomery. The role given American forces of supporting Montgomery's main effort brought controversy to the Allied commanders, as Americans saw Montgomery as egotistical and condescending. The successful landing was followed by a grueling effort to clear the island of stubborn and effective German resistance.**** Mainland Italy was then invaded in September 1943, including by Montgomery's Eighth Army in the extreme southern part ("heel") of Italy. The Allied advance was halted by stiff German opposition south of Rome, and Montgomery was recalled to Britain to help prepare for the invasion of France.

Montgomery's plan called for the capture of the French city of Caen (in Normandy) by British forces and then a thrust northward, with American forces coming around the outside of advance. Caen was only taken much later than Montgomery anticipated, and after very heavy casualties, and the Allies didn't breakout of Normandy until August (they had landed on June 6, 1944). This was followed by a Montgomery plan to land airborne forces behind the German lines in the Netherlands in mid September 1944, combined with a ground offensive to link up with those forces. A follow up offensive would carry the Allies into Germany to capture the German industrial region (the Ruhr) and end the war quickly. Montgomery's reputation took a tumble, as part of the airborne landing force was cut to pieces by the Germans. The Germans launched a major offensive in mid December 1944 (known to the Allies as the "Battle of the Bulge," due to the 'bulge' created in the American line by the advancing Germans). Montgomery was temporarily given overall command of American forces in the area, and British troops were positioned to prevent a German breakthrough toward their ultimate (and overly optimistic) objective of Antwerp, which would have cut the Allied forces in two. In the later stages of the battle, Montgomery was criticized for not acting to cut off German forces retreating from the "bulge." Eventually British forces crossed the Rhine River into northern Germany and the war ended in May 1945. Montgomery was then commander of the British occupation forces in Germany, and later was named Chief of the Imperial General Staff. He remained controversial for the rest of his life, offering opinions on segregation in South Africa (he supported it) and even on gay rights (he opposed them), and his memoirs caustically criticized many of his associates from the war, including (by then) American President, Dwight Eisenhower, who had been the Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. Outraged Americans wanted the head of "Monty" (as he was more often known), and Eisenhower never contacted him again. Montgomery died in 1976 in England, age 88.

* The Eighth Army was the army headquarters in charge of British and Commonwealth troops in Egypt. At that time, August 1942, Rommel's advance had been halted near the railway station of El Alamein.

** Montgomery's experiences of the terrible casualties of World War One, when waves of men were sacrificed for little or no gain, made him cautious in his operations. He chose to build up his forces to a point where they were pretty much guaranteed victory, due to overwhelming numbers. Some military people criticize his caution; others admire his deliberate pace and attempts to avoid heavy casualties. To be quite honest, there isn't any one correct answer. If you have seen the superb movie, "Patton," this same debate is depicted between Patton and General Omar Bradley during operations on Sicily. Patton, ever the "keep advancing, regardless of casualties" kind of commander, is confronted by the more deliberate Bradley. Patton, Bradley's superior, prevails, and so do the American forces, but at high cost. Patton tells Bradley the casualties would have been even higher had they waited, but these arguments are really never ending.

*** The decisive use of air power by the Allies in ground operations was something of a rarity at that time, as the German use of air power to support their ground forces had been a key component in their victories since the beginning of the war. Montgomery and other Allied commanders took note of the German tactics and turned them to their own advantage, something that lasted until the end of the war. Allied air power was often cited by Rommel for his pessimistic view of the eventual outcome of the war, although he believed a defeat of an Allied landing in France could still save Germany from total defeat. When that landing came (D-Day), Allied air power was so overwhelming, it prevented the timely arrival of German reinforcements to the invasion area, as German armored units (Panzer units), especially, had to do most of their travel at night to avoid being sitting ducks for Allied fighter-bombers. Even when the units arrived at their destinations, they had often already suffered losses to their tank strength from air attacks.

**** While Italian troops far outnumbered German troops on Sicily, many, but certainly not all, Italians chose to give up the fight and surrendered at first chance. Most Italian units involved were composed of reservists. On the other hand, many of the Germans were first class troops, including reinforcements by the highly regarded German paratroopers.

WORD HISTORY:
Small-This word traces back to Indo European "smalo," which had the general meaning "small," a meaning apparently often used of animals. This gave its Old Germanic offspring "smalaz," also with the meaning "small, narrow." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "smael," with the same basic meaning. This then later became "smal," before the modern version. Its other Germanic relatives are: German "schmal," Low German Saxon "small," other Low German "schmaul," Dutch "smal," Frisian "smel," all tending more toward the meaning "narrow," but also in "small," in some cases. Swedish, Danish and Norwegian have two forms, "små" (“small”) and also "smal" ("narrow"). I could not find a form in Icelandic, so I assume it has died out.

German Military Leaders/Nazi Era/Rommel

"Field Marshal Erwin Rommel"

No doubt about it, this is the most famous German general of World War Two in western Europe and in the United States. Rommel was born in Württemberg, then a kingdom within the German Empire. As an officer in the Alpine troops in World War One, he served primarily in Italy, a country then allied with Britain and France. Rommel remained in the treaty-limited army after the war, where he developed many ideas about tactics for tanks and infantry, which he set down in writing in a couple of books, which became highly popular in military circles inside and outside of Germany.*

About a year before the invasion of Poland, Rommel was named commander of Hitler's personal escort battalion, an army unit which provided protection for Hitler in his military travels. During the war in Poland, Rommel, recently promoted to major-general (Generalmajor), commanded Hitler's military headquarters. When German forces launched their offensive in western Europe, Rommel was in command of a panzer division (the 7th), which was one of the units that helped break through Belgian and French lines to cut off British forces. What was to become Rommel's famed "lead from the front" style, started in this campaign, as he often personally led hard charging attacks that demoralized enemy troops. His division was dubbed "the Ghost Division," since Rommel pushed it so hard, it seemed to burst upon rear area enemy positions from nowhere. The downside was, he was so often right up front, he was out of communication with his command staff, as well as with his superiors.

By early 1941, the defeat of Mussolini's army in Libya (then an Italian colony) by British and Commonwealth forces, brought a German commitment of military forces to help their struggling ally avoid the entire loss of Libya.** Called the "German Africa Corps" (Deutsches Afrikakorps), the corps would become one of the most famous units of the war on any side. Rommel's take charge attitude and his ability to assess a situation to exploit enemy weaknesses, brought a surprise German-Italian offensive success just weeks after his arrival in Libya. The offensive carried the Axis forces back across Libya, clear to the Egyptian border, trapping some Allied forces in the port city of Tobruk. The Allies then launched an attack of their own which broke the siege of Tobruk and caused Rommel to retreat to his original starting point. This was not the end, however, as Rommel launched a new attack of his own in 1942, throwing the Allies back, capturing Tobruk, driving deep into Egypt, and threatening to capture the Suez Canal. Stiffening Allied resistance, lack of supplies and sheer exhaustion halted Rommel's offensive at the little railway station of El Alamein in Egypt. The capture of Tobruk brought Rommel promotion to field marshal by Hitler.

Rommel had met, and was befriended by, Nazi propagandist Joseph Goebbels in the late 1930s. The desert war captured the imagination of the German public and Goebbels made Rommel a household name throughout Germany and occupied Europe with many newsreels depicting the combat in North Africa. Rommel, by then dubbed "the Desert Fox" (Der Wüstenfuchs***), became a hero to many a German, and a much feared opponent among Allied troops, although the fear also had a certain admiration to it. One British commander was so alarmed by Rommel's reputation with British troops, that he ordered his commanders to quash Rommel's "bogeyman" image among their soldiers.

By late October of 1942, the Allied forces, now under the command of General Bernhard Montgomery, launched a devastating attack on the German-Italian positions in and around El Alamein. After terrible losses of men and equipment, and in spite of Hitler's order to hold his positions,**** Rommel ordered a retreat. Thousands of Axis prisoners were taken by the Allies. Meanwhile, the Americans and British forces landed troops in the French North African colonies of French Morocco and Algeria, which were far to the rear of Rommel's retreating army. Hitler and Mussolini rushed troops to Tunisia, another French colony sandwiched between Rommel's retreating forces in Libya and the Allied forces which had just landed. French resistance to the landings was relatively light, and the struggle then centered on Tunisia. While Rommel inflicted a punishing defeat on the Americans at a place called "Kasserine Pass" in February 1943, the German and Italian forces surrendered in May 1943. The war in North Africa was over.

Rommel was given command of some forces in Greece and then in northern Italy before being transferred to France to take command of the area seen as the most likely for the anticipated Allied invasion. He found the German fortifications wanting, and he immediately set upon a course to strengthen those defenses, especially along the beach areas, as he believed the Allied landing had to be crushed on the beaches as they attempted to land, not after they had already landed. This idea was not universally accepted among other German generals, including Field Marshal von Rundstedt, the overall commander of German forces in western Europe. Rommel wanted all sorts of mines and obstacles along the water's edge to hamper the landings, so that his forces could then finish off the survivors (he also had obstacles placed further inland to prohibit or hamper paratroop or glider landings). He also wanted German armored forces (the Panzer divisions) stationed close to the beaches so that they could quickly be dispatched to mount attacks on any Allied troops who made it ashore, before they could be reinforced. Other generals argued the armor should be kept further back until a definite location of the landings was determined. Remember, the Germans did not know exactly where the Allies would land in France. In the end, there was sort of a compromise, as one Panzer division, interestingly stationed in Normandy (which came to be the site of the invasion), was moved relatively close to the beaches, but others were kept further back. This was complicated by the fact that these divisions could not be committed to any attack without the direct personal permission of the fanatical, ferocious, furious Führer.

On June 6, 1944, the Allies landed in Normandy during a brief lull in a period of bad weather (rain, wind, choppy seas). Rommel was away in Germany for his wife's birthday, having been convinced the Allies would not dare to cross the English Channel under such weather conditions. While some German forces, especially in the area known as "Omaha Beach," put up stout resistance, with Rommel away, the German reaction to the invasion was (thankfully) slow to develop. Hitler and others believed the Normandy landings were a ruse to draw German forces there, to allow an easier major landing somewhat further north. With the Allies having gained a foothold in France, the battle became a slogging match for almost two months; the Germans trying to contain the Allies in Normandy. In mid July, Rommel's car was strafed by Allied aircraft, the car crashed and the field marshal was severely injured. This was the end of Rommel's days of command, as he was hospitalized for quite some time and then sent home to recuperate. Just three days after the strafing of Rommel's car, a bomb, planted by an army officer, Klaus von Stauffenberg, exploded in Hitler's military headquarters in northeastern Germany (Rastenburg, East Prussia). The fanatical, ferocious, furious Führer, now VERY furious, survived the attack, and the Gestapo sought out anyone involved in the slightest way in the plot. Under interrogation and torture, Rommel's name was mentioned a few times by officers in custody, and by October 1944, Hitler dispatched some army officers to Rommel's home in southwestern Germany, where the field marshal was convalescing. Rommel was given the choice of taking his own life, with protections for his wife and son, or of being arrested, put on trial, and then executed, with no protection for his family. He chose to die, and after just a short time to say goodbye to his wife and son, Rommel got into a car accompanied by the other officers. The car traveled a short distance and Rommel took poison. Hitler and the Nazis could ill afford the true story to come out about such a prominent general, so it was announced by the Nazi press that Rommel had died of his wounds. He was given full military honors, and Hitler did keep his word about Rommel's family.*****

After the war, Rommel was held in high regard, even by his former enemies. His eventual opposition to Hitler, which only came out after the war, only enhanced his stature. He is best remembered as "the Desert Fox," during the war in North Africa, a war, that while brutal like all war, was not consumed by hatred, ideology or racism, such as happened in the Soviet Union, especially. Rommel forbade the execution of any captured troops of Jewish heritage or of legitimate Allied commandos, which ran counter to Hitler's orders.

* If you've seen the movie "Patton," you may recall General Patton shouting, upon defeating Rommel's forces in one battle, "Rommel, you magnificent bastard, I read your book!!!" While this was only a scene in a movie, it has much truth in it, because many of the successful commanders of the war read the works of military men from other countries in an effort to learn anything and everything they could about strategy and tactics.

** Rommel and the German forces were actually under the overall command of the Italians, which caused some friction, especially due to Rommel's independent personality. In late 1941, a German command structure was implemented for southern Europe and North Africa under the command of Albert Kesselring, but North Africa remained under overall Italian command.

*** German "Wüste," meaning "desert, wasteland," is closely related to English "waste," which we also use in the context of "barren, desert" land in the compound "wasteland." For those studying German, the noun is feminine; thus, "die Wüste," but when combined with the masculine noun "Fuchs" (fox), it becomes "der Wüstenfuchs," as German compounds take the grammatical gender of the last word in compounds. Aren't you glad English gave up using gender a long time ago?

**** In typical Hitlerian nonsense, the fanatical, ferocious, furious Führer ended his order to Rommel to hold fast with, "Ihrer Truppe aber können Sie keinen anderen Weg zeigen als den zum Siege oder zum Tod." (You can but show your troops no other path than the one to victory or death.")

***** Rommel was never all that involved in the plot to actually kill Hitler. He wanted Hitler arrested and put on trial for Germans to see the criminality of the nutcase-in-chief, and so as not to make the fanatical, ferocious, furious Führer a martyr. The major plotters decided that a live Hitler, even one under arrest, would be too much of a threat to German unity, as fanatical Nazis would resist, possibly bringing about a civil war. They wanted and needed someone of Rommel's stature to aid them with the German public, once Hitler, and hopefully SS Chief Himmler, and or Hitler's designated successor, Hermann Göring, had been killed.

WORD HISTORY:
Arm (2)-This is the noun meaning "weapon," which is more commonly used in the plural, "arms." This goes back to Indo European "ar," which had the notion of "fit or join together." This gave its Latin offspring^ "arma," which meant "tools, tools of war; thus, 'weapons.' " Old French, a Latin-based language, had "armes," which was then borrowed into English with the same spelling during the early 1200s. It was a couple of hundred years before the English spelling "arms" developed. The verb form, meaning "to supply or equip with weapons," was borrowed in the 1200s from French "armer," which traces back to Latin "armare," a derived form of "arma," mentioned above. In English the verb was initially spelled "armen," before the modern spelling.

^ Latin is an Indo European language related to English, but further down the family tree, although English and many other non Latin-based languages have borrowed much vocabulary either directly from Latin or from one of the Latin-based languages; in the case of English, from French.

"Patton:" Just A Great Movie

"Patton" is just one of the greatest "personality" pictures ever made, played to the hilt by actor George C. Scott. Scott's portrayal is so intense, I cannot to this day, over forty years after the release of the picture, hear or see something about the real General Patton without thinking of George C. Scott. If I remember correctly, I went to see the movie three times during its original release. The writers worked many of General Patton's own words into the picture,* "salty" language and all, and the movie certainly captures the nutty instability, fanaticism, brilliance, showmanship and ego problems of the famous general's personality. It begins with his command of American troops in North Africa during the last stages of the war there to defeat Rommel. While he sees the German field marshal as a worthy opponent, whose defeat can enhance his own career, he also develops an enduring rivalry with another man of similar ego problems, British General (later Field Marshal) Montgomery, "Monty," during this period of the war. Rommel, played by German actor Karl Michael Vogler, and Montgomery, played by British actor Michael Bates, are two "obsessions" which drive Patton throughout the war.

The writers also took the interesting angle of providing insight into Patton's personality by showing how the German military viewed Patton, and there are numerous scenes at German military headquarters at various points during the war, where top generals try to keep tabs on Patton. Much of their information comes from an army intelligence captain (a fictional character used by the writers) who tells them how Patton is a military historian who believes in reincarnation (which he did). The captain calculates Patton's future moves through this information, such as the invasion of the Italian island of Sicily. Historically, the decision to invade Sicily was made far above Patton's command, by the Allied political leaders, with input from the military, but it was not Patton's decision. If you follow the movie closely enough, it does not claim that Sicily was Patton's decision, but it simply tries to show how the Germans began to obsess over Patton's movements, and how they attributed many major decisions to him, since they saw Patton as the "best commander" the Allies had.

The movie then takes the viewer into the campaign in Sicily, where Patton drives his army to great military exploits, often with great casualties. His reputation is tarnished by his unstable temperament which is put into the spotlight by his slapping of a shell shocked soldier in a hospital. He then threatens to shoot the soldier himself. The Germans think this whole episode is a ruse to cover what they believe is Patton's real mission, the command of the Allied forces assembling for the invasion of German-occupied France. They so respect Patton, they cannot believe his slapping of a soldier would keep the Allies from giving "their best general" the top command. Herein is one of Patton's historical legacies; he fights to free people from the Nazis, yet his love of war and his tactics, ruthless at times, are similar to those of the Nazis. The fact that the German military was so respectful and fearful of Patton has only served Patton's critics as proof of his Nazi-like similarities. That is something you'll have to decide for yourself.

The movie takes the action to France, where Patton, deprived of the top command, is given command of an army that will lead the breakthrough effort in Normandy. The Allied advance has been held in relative check by the Germans, under none other than Field Marshal Rommel. With Montgomery also present in France, Patton and Monty race to see who can get to Germany first and secure a German surrender. Patton's inability to control his temper, and his statements to the press, keeps him in hot water throughout the movie (and in real life), including AFTER the war, when he said the Allies should then have gone to war with Soviet Russia, even rearming the just defeated German troops to do so.

If you have never seen this picture, please do so! If you haven't seen it for years, see it again. It is readily available on DVD. It is a war picture, but it is really about Patton first and foremost, and George C. Scott is unforgettable in the title role. For those learning German or for those wanting to practice their understanding of German, the film has several scenes in German (with English subtitles); likewise, there is a bit of French, too.

* General Omar Bradley, Patton's close associate during the war (sometimes being his subordinate and sometimes his superior), was a consultant for the film, and author Ladislas Farago's book "Patton: Ordeal and Triumph" provided much of the material for the script. Bradley, also a highly successful American commander during World War Two, had a very different personality compared to Patton, and the two, while friends, often clashed over matters. Bradley is portrayed in the movie by Karl Malden, who then went on to star in the television crime and detective drama, "The Streets of San Francisco," during much of the 1970s.  

WORD HISTORY:
General-This word, used as both an adjective and as a noun, goes back to the Indo European root "gen," which meant "produce, offspring." This gave its Latin "offspring" (I couldn't help that) "genus," with the meaning "type, kind, stock, race," a word still used in scientific/botanical lingo. This then gave Latin "generalis," with the meaning "from the overall genus, from the whole." This gave Old French, a heavily Latin-based language, "general," with the same meaning. The word seems to have been borrowed into English in the late 1100s or early 1200s in its adjectival form and still with the meaning "from the overall body or class of something;" that is, "not specific," and we still use that meaning today, as in, for instance, "general store;" that is, "a store that sells a little of everything, not a specialty store." During the 1500s, French used the term "capitaine general" for a military rank for "a captain in charge of a large body of troops," and "general" was still an adjective in this form. French, English and other languages dropped the "capitaine" part, leaving "general," a noun form, for a superior commander. German, too, borrowed the word in the same form, "General," but the pronunciation uses a hard "g."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Fifty-One

Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Four/B
"German Heroes: The Plot Against Hitler"

Resistance (German: "Widerstand") to Hitler and the Nazis was not easy for the average German, nor any German for that matter. Spies reported the least little things to Nazi authorities, and this could result in imprisonment or even death for the perpetrator. Here is where fear also took over. By instilling fear in people, Germans were careful in just about everything they said, and some undoubtedly even reported "unwise" statements to the authorities made by neighbors, fearful that if they didn't report it, and the person who made the statement was found out anyhow, they themselves might be implicated. It was a vast circle of fear. It is not easy for most people to oppose their own country, and Germans were much the same, especially once the war started. Still, some searched their souls and decided that resistance to Hitler and criminality was more important than Germany's war effort under the Nazi regime. And again, there was always that fear of being found out. During the war, Sophie Scholl, her brother, Hans, and a friend, Christoph Probst, were arrested for distributing leaflets at the University of Munich urging Germans to resist the Nazis and the war. They were "tried" before a Nazi court (see below) and beheaded shortly after the sentencing. There are several memorials and honors to this young courageous German woman and the other young Germans who tried to fight evil, and who gave their lives doing so. I hope all of you will be interested enough to read more about these German heroes, or to watch the movie, "Sophie Scholl-The Final Days," a German language movie, with English subtitles. (Note added 12/8/22: To be clear, opponents of the Nazi regime were NOT perfect people, and I doubt that any of them will ever be proposed for sainthood. Many had been supportive of Hitler until the war turned against Germany, while others were opposed to Hitler much earlier, especially around the time of the crisis over the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia; but even then, one of the main objections to Hitler was that he was going to get Germany into a war it was not prepared to fight. Some were outright Nazis. So, there were seldom, if ever, any high sounding ideals, rather for military people it was a very simple and practical feeling that the country was not ready to fight a major war. On the other hand, the reality with these people was, they chose to oppose Hitler, at whatever time during his rule, under very dangerous circumstances, and indeed, many paid with their lives for their decision. Would we rather that they had remained loyal to the fanatical furious Führer?)  

The military was in something of a different category. With many German officers coming from the nobility, there was a tendency by these men to look down on some of the Nazi thugs as, well.... THUGS! Highly respected by the German public, officers enjoyed sort of a club of their own; thus, much of the organized resistance to Hitler came from the German military, with some government officials also involved. General Ludwig Beck, one of the early opponents of the regime, resigned prior to the war, when he felt Britain and France were too timid in dealing with Hitler. He may have resigned his military position, but he remained active in conspiracies to remove Hitler from power, including the option of assassinating the Nazi leader. As the war went down hill, military officers knew first hand that Germany stood a good chance of losing the war, no matter what all the Nazi propaganda told the public. They also knew a good deal about atrocities committed by Germans as part of Nazi policy, especially in Russia. Still, they had sworn an oath to Hitler personally, and that oath was not easily overcome by many, even with the knowledge that the oath had been given to a criminal.

There were various plots against Hitler, but the most famous plot came very near to killing him. It took place on July 20, 1944 at Hitler's military headquarters in northeastern Germany, near Rastenburg, in the province of East Prussia. Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg* carried a bomb inside his briefcase into a military conference that day. He was to give a report at the conference, but excused himself "for a phone call" just moments before the bomb went off. The bomb, activated by acid that ate through a trip wire, exploded under the conference table, but Hitler was only injured; one of the other officers having moved Stauffenberg's briefcase to the other side of the stout table support so he could see the maps better.** Stauffenberg left the compound and flew to Berlin fully believing Hitler was dead. Other conspirators in Berlin and elsewhere (including Paris and Vienna), mainly army officers, awaited confirmation that Hitler had indeed been killed. Some Nazi officials were taken into custody in various locations across Germany and in occupied territories. A group of army soldiers was sent to arrest propagandist Joseph Goebbels, but Goebbels cleverly put a call through to Hitler, who told the officer in charge, Major Otto Remer, that he was very much alive, and that the officer and his troops were to arrest the conspirators instead. With Hitler still alive, the plot fell apart. Later that night, Hitler addressed the German nation by radio from his headquarters (the speech had been recorded by Hitler earlier and then transported from the headquarters for broadcast). Secret agent reports showed the attack to be generally unpopular with the German public, which saw the attack as "unpatriotic" in a time of war (fascists LOVE to wrap themselves in patriotism and claim that acts specifically against them are actually acts against the country).

Stauffenberg, Beck, field marshals, generals, mayors and hundreds of others were executed as a consequence. Those arrested were put on "trial" before the Volksgerichtshof, the so called "People's Court,*** led by fanatical Nazi judge, Roland Freisler, who screamed insults at defendants. The proceedings were filmed, as were the resulting executions.

Anyone suspected of having participated in, or having known about, the plot, was arrested. Field Marshal Rommel's name was mentioned by some conspirators under interrogation, although apparently he was not actively involved, and his family later maintained that Rommel wanted Hitler arrested, but did not support killing him. Whatever the case, Rommel, home on leave to recover from injuries,**** was visited by German officers who brought an ultimatum with them. Hitler gave Rommel the choice of killing himself, and being given full military honors, as having died from his wounds, or of being arrested and tried, in which case there would be no guarantees for the safety of his wife and son. Some choice! Rommel chose to take his own life, and Hitler at least kept his word. Rommel was given a hero's funeral, with none other than Field Marshal von Rundstedt, the most respected of German generals, giving a eulogy. Rundstedt, upon later learning the truth about Rommel's death, lamented that he had believed the Nazi story that Rommel had died of his injuries.

As I noted above, please read more or watch documentaries or docu-dramas (one of the more recent ones starring Tom Cruise) to learn more about these German heroes. Historians usually choose to dwell upon all of the negatives about the Germans during the Nazi period, with good reason, and I know I have too in these most recent articles, but we can't forget that there were Germans who tried to stop the madness that had enveloped their country. They saw evil and they tried to stop it. We all should be very proud of them. It is not without reason Germans have placed a memorial plaque at the site of the executions of Stauffenberg and four others of the main conspirators against Hitler. The heading to the plaque reads: "Hier starben für Deutschland" ("Here died for Germany"); it then lists the names of the men: Colonel General Ludwig Beck; General of Infantry Friedrich Olbricht; Colonel Claus Count Schenk Von Stauffenberg; Colonel Albrecht Ritter Mertz Von Quirnheim; First Lieutenant Werner Von Haeften.   

* Stauffenberg, who also carried the noble title "Graf;" that is, "Count," had been severely wounded in North Africa in 1943, losing his right hand, two fingers on his left hand, and his left eye, over which he wore a black patch. No one could claim he hadn't sacrificed for his country, but he made the ultimate sacrifice by opposing Hitler, as he was executed in Berlin early on July 21, 1944, on orders of General Fromm, the commander of the Replacement Army, which was headquartered in Berlin.

** The military conferences normally took place in a concrete bunker, but it was being refurbished and strengthened against potential air attack. On July 20th the conference was held in a wooden conference room, with the windows open, due to the heat of July. Various experts have noted that Hitler, and probably all present, likely would have died if the conference had been in the usual concrete bunker, as the force of the blast would not have easily escaped, which is what happened with the wooden conference room and open windows. As it happened, four people died out of more than 20 in the conference room, and Hitler only suffered some contusions and bruises, plus a damaged eardrum.

*** The "People's Court" was a Nazi invention. It was set up early in Hitler's rule to get around the legal court system in place under the Weimar Republic. It was truly a "Nazi court system," and few people were ever acquitted after going before this court, with the verdicts in most cases, being determined beforehand.

**** Rommel was the commander of a German army group in France. In July of 1944, during the Normandy campaign, his staff car was strafed by an Allied aircraft. The car crashed and Rommel suffered severe injuries, especially to his skull and face.

WORD HISTORY:
Plot-This word is a mystery word. It appears in English circa 1000, although that doesn't necessarily mean it didn't exist in spoken English before that time. Where it came from is unknown. Its recorded history shows that initially it meant "parcel of land," a meaning still present in English to this day. From this meaning also came "a plan of grounds, a map." In this meaning, the "plan" part became the part that stuck, and from the notion of "calculating the dimensions for a map or sketch," we have its meaning, "scheme, plan" and also, "a story line, the major plan of a book or script." The verb was derived from the noun in the 1500s. It appears the English word was reinforced by French "complot," which had the general meaning "plans joined together (often secretly)." This was borrowed from French in the 1500s, and its ultimate origins are also unknown, but it goes back to "compeloter," with the meanings "com"="combine," and "peloter"="ball;" thus "combine into a ball, put together." In English, undoubtedly under the influence of the native word "plot," the "com" prefix, denoting "combined, joining," was dropped from the French borrowing. German too borrowed this word from French, as "Komplott," and it means "a plot, a scheme."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Forty-Six

"Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Two/F/3
"Germany Versus the Soviet Union" Part Three
"The German Tide Ebbs"

On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii (then a U.S. territory, not a state). President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Congress agreed to a declaration of war on Japan. Roosevelt had been trying to help Britain as much as possible, without getting the U.S. directly involved in the war, by sending material aid to the British. Before Pearl Harbor, the American public was split over possible American involvement in the war. Hitler solved the issue of American participation in the war against Germany by declaring war on the United States on December 11 at a session of the Reichstag. Always the racist, Hitler didn't seem to realize that he was bringing a formidable foe into the war against him. Various statements indicated he believed Americans could not fight well, because they were such a mixture of ethnic and racial groups. Such nonsense helped to hasten his demise. Mussolini followed suit with a declaration of war by Italy on the United States. It wasn't long before heavily armed convoys were transporting American troops and war equipment to Britain.

In North Africa, Rommel's German and Italian forces faced a new British commander, Bernard Montgomery, and "Monty" launched a major offensive against Rommel in late October 1942, in what became the last part of the El Alamein battle. After terrible losses of men and equipment, and in spite of Hitler's order to hold his positions, Rommel ordered a retreat. Thousands of Axis prisoners were taken by the Allies. Meanwhile, the Americans and British forces landed troops in the French North African colonies of French Morocco and Algeria, which were behind Rommel's retreating army. Hitler and Mussolini rushed troops to Tunisia, another French colony sandwiched between Rommel's retreating forces in Libya and the Allied forces which had just landed. French resistance to the landings was relatively light, and the struggle then centered on Tunisia. While Rommel inflicted a punishing defeat on the Americans at a place called "Kasserine Pass" in February 1943, the German and Italian forces surrendered in May 1943. This now left Italy vulnerable to attack.

In the Soviet Union, Hitler's stalled capture of Stalingrad gave the Soviets time to gather fresh troops north and south of the city. In mid November 1942 they struck, breaking through primarily overwhelmed Rumanian lines and trapping a large German, and a smaller Rumanian force, in and around Stalingrad. By early February 1943, the remaining encircled forces surrendered to the Soviets. During the overall Soviet operations that winter, the whole southern sector of the Axis front was pummeled, and a Hungarian army and an Italian army, besides two Rumanian armies and a German army were essentially destroyed. The Germans did not stabilize the front until February/March 1943, but they had lost virtually all of their gains from the previous summer. Although there would still be much intense fighting, Hitler's days were numbered.

WORD HISTORY:
Ebb-This word, closely related to "off," goes back to Indo European "apo," which meant "off, away (from)." This gave Old Germanic "ab," with the same meaning, and from that Old Germanic developed "abjon," with the meaning "tide flowing away, tide flowing 'off' from shore;" thus, "low tide." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "ebba," which later dropped the ending "a." The figurative use to mean "decline of someone or something" was already in use in the 1300s. There are various forms present in the other Germanic languages: German has "Ebbe," Low German Saxon has "Ebben," West Frisian has "ebbe," Dutch "eb," Icelandic has "ebbið" (=ebbith), Swedish has "ebb," Norwegian has "ebbe" and Danish has "ebbe." Some of the Germanic languages still retain a verb form, English being one of those, and in Old English it was "ebbian." Dutch has "ebben."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Forty-Two

"Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Two/D
"He Was Called The Desert Fox"

If ever there has been a "popular" part of modern war, the war in North Africa would undoubtedly be a leading candidate for the title. While the men killed on both sides were just as dead as those killed on the continent of Europe, or somewhere on the vast seas, the outright hatred by the two sides was lacking in this war in the desert. Any atrocities were limited to acts carried out by individuals, rather than by policy from higher commands. The war in North Africa has been romanticized from the time it was taking place until the present, with books, articles, movies and television shows. I "guess" what all of this means is, if there have to be wars, then let them be like the war in North Africa, where even enemies sort of "had respect" for one another.

When Italy declared war on June 10, 1940, the Italians found their African colonies bordered in East Africa and in North Africa by enemy forces or colonies.* In East Africa, Italy controlled the colonies of Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Italian Somaliland, and in August of 1940, the Italians ousted the British from their small colony of "British Somaliland." It wasn't long, however, before the British and British Commonwealth military forces launched operations against the Italians in East Africa. Far removed from Italy, the Italians and their colonial forces could not prevent an eventual defeat by late 1941.

In North Africa, Italy controlled the colony of Libya. To the west lay the French colonies of Tunisia and Algeria; to the east lay Egypt, a kingdom, but with substantial British influence, including British and Commonwealth troops stationed there to protect the Suez Canal and the major British naval base at Alexandria.**

Mussolini sought to restore the long defunct Roman Empire, and in September of 1940, his forces advanced into Egypt with the Suez Canal as the grand prize. The terrain in both Libya and Egypt was mainly desert or extremely rough, with hot and dry conditions. Major military operations were thus usually carried out only from the Mediterranean coast to about 40-60 miles inland. The Italians advanced against light British opposition, and then they paused and set up defensive camps. The British took the opportunity to launch an offensive in December 1940, even though they were outnumbered by the Italians. Instead of having a unified defensive position, the Italians had formed defensive camps that were separated from one another, and one camp was thus unable to support any other camp or camps that came under attack. The British forces won a decisive victory, not only destroying the Italian forces, but pursuing the remnants of Mussolini's army back into Libya, threatening to conquer all of Libya. Events on the continent (see next article) and sheer exhaustion hampered the British advance, and they stopped the offensive to rest and resupply their forces. They had captured some 130,000 Italian troops! This achieved by a British force of only 36,000.

Alarms sounded in Germany about Mussolini's failed exploit. Hitler, not wanting to get bogged down in North Africa, nor to embarrass his ally Mussolini, decided to send a relatively small German mobile force under the command of General Erwin Rommel, a former commander of Hitler's headquarters' protection unit, to hopefully stabilize the situation. The German units came to be called the "German Africa Corps" ("Deutsches Afrikakorps"). Not long after his arrival, and before all of his units were even delivered to North Africa (through the Libyan port of Tripoli), Rommel launched an attack against the British forces in Libya, chasing them back to the Egyptian border, and surrounding British and Commonwealth forces in the Libyan port city of Tobruk. The British held out in Tobruk, and eventually their forces along the Egyptian border launched an attack against Rommel's German and Italian units (Mussolini had sent reinforcements).*** Rommel retreated all the way back to his original starting point, but then turned on the British and launched a new offensive, this time capturing Tobruk and driving deep into Egypt.**** It looked as if the Germans and Italians would capture both Alexandria and the Suez Canal, and Mussolini even went to North Africa to be present for the victory celebration, but the British weren't defeated yet. Rommel, short of supplies and faced with increasing British resistance, halted near a tiny railway station called El Alamein in the late summer of 1942. His mastery of the battlefield and his tendency to go right to the front line to assess and direct situations helped earned Rommel the nickname, "The Desert Fox" (Der "Wüstenfuchs," see Word History below).

* The armistice signed by France on June 22, 1940, ended hostilities, and part of the agreement carved out a central core of France to be administered by the French, referred to as "Vichy France," as the government operated out of the city of Vichy, not Paris, which remained under German occupation. The French also retained their colonies in Africa and the Middle East. The French military was restricted in size, but they continued to have troops stationed in their colonies. These forces, like two other belligerents, Britain and Italy, were a combination of "national" troops and colonial troops; the colonial units usually commanded by national officers. "National" means French, British, or Italian, respectively.

** This control of the Suez Canal and the eastern Mediterranean Sea by the British prohibited Italy from supplying her military forces in East Africa, mentioned in the above segment. The only way for Italy to send substantial military aid to East Africa by ship was to try to get ships through the narrow Strait of Gibraltar (Gibraltar was under British control), then go clear around Africa, and given British naval superiority this gave them two chances; slim and none. They were able to send some transport planes with aid for their forces in East Africa, but the limited number of such planes available to the Italians made this impractical for sustaining their army in East Africa.

*** It needs to be noted that Rommel was technically subordinate to the Italian High Command in Rome, something he resented, as politics intruded onto the battlefield. On the other hand, the Italians were not always taken with Rommel's insubordination to their orders, and the relationship between the two sides was never really cordial, to say the least, although Rommel did seemingly like and respect some of the Italian field commanders subordinate to him in North Africa.

**** Hitler promoted Rommel to Field Marshal for the capture of Tobruk, and Rommel's exploits in North Africa captured the imagination of the German public. Rommel's friendship with Hitler's propagandist Josef Goebbels helped too, as Goebbels gave Rommel lots of stories in the press and in newsreels. It wasn't only in Germany that Rommel was known, however, as the British and the rest of the world took note of his dashing persona, and with the British, a strange sort of admiration developed for Rommel, albeit a fearful one. One British commander was so alarmed by Rommel's reputation among British troops, that he ordered his commanders to quash Rommel's "bogeyman" image among their men.

WORD HISTORY:
Fox (Vixen)-This noun goes back to Indo European "puk," which meant "tail," and the extended form, "pukso," meaning "with a tail, tailed." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "fuhsaz," then West Germanic "fukhs;" English is a West Germanic language. This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "fox," and it has remained such for all of these centuries. The North Germanic languages do not use the word, although their ancestor, Old Norse, had a form of the word, "foa," which has died out, but it is common in the other West Germanic languages: German has "Fuchs" (be careful how you pronounce that! The 'u' is pronounced pretty much like the 'oo' sound of English 'food'); Low German has "Voss," Dutch has "vos," and West Frisian has "foks." For those studying German, "Fuchs" is masculine, thus "der Fuchs," although a female fox is feminine, and is "die Füchsin," similar in pronunciation, but with a beginning "f" sound, to its close relative, the English word for female fox, "vixen."