A Bomb For Hitler: "Valkyrie," 2008 Tom Cruise Movie

I've done a few articles on the subject of the attempt on Hitler's life and this one provides an overview to the actual historical events, if you are interested: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2011/08/german-question-part-one-hundred-fifty_29.html

The problem with these kinds of pictures is that they are based upon historical events; thus, we already know the overall outcome. It's like with the various pictures about the Titanic, the ship hits an iceberg and sinks. It always ends the same. Damn! You'd think after the first movie, they'd know to stay away from icebergs! With the July 20, 1944 attempt on Hitler's life, the subject has been covered, in whole or in part, in numerous films dating back decades. Perhaps we need to have new versions to continue to show younger generations that resistance to fascism did exist, even in a totalitarian system like that of Germany under the Nazis. Notice too, I said, "based upon historical events." This doesn't mean that the movies are documentaries, but rather, that they contain scenes depicting, "to some degree," events that actually took place historically.* Movies are written, filmed and released to make money and in many cases the overall real historical events wouldn't keep people in their seats or make them want to buy tickets to a movie theater, so..... things get spiced up to hold the attention of the audience; or at least, that's what the movie studios hope. So it is with this film, "Valkyrie," although you must admit, planting a bomb near Hitler and then trying to take control of Germany from the Nazis is a story that should hold the attention of most viewers.  

"Valkyrie" (German: "Walküre")** comes from that word's use as a German code name for a military plan to secure parts or all of Germany due to any threat to German government control for any reason, including rebellion. A number of the officers with responsibilities for carrying out any such military operation were anti-Nazis, and they cleverly decided to use the plan to take over the German government FROM the Nazis, once Hitler was either arrested or killed.     

There is a large cast for this movie, and some of  the main cast members are: American actor Tom Cruise as Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg, British actor (from Northern Ireland) Kenneth Branagh, as Colonel (later General) Henning von Tresckow, English actor Bill Nighy as General Friedrich Olbricht, English actor Terence Stamp as General Beck,*** English actor Tom Wilkinson as Colonel General Friedrich Fromm, German actor Thomas Kretschmann as Major Otto Remer,**** English actor Jamie Parker as Stuaffenberg's military aide, Werner von Haeften, and last, but not least, The Wacko-in-Chief, Hitler, is played by English actor David Bamber.

This version of the nearly successful attempt to kill Hitler begins with Claus von Stauffenberg serving with the German army in Tunisia, where he is severely wounded. The scene shifts to Hitler visiting a group of officers, including then Colonel, and soon to be General, Henning von Tresckow,  on the Eastern Front in Russia. When Hitler boards his plane to leave, Tresckow asks one of the officers who will accompany Hitler on the flight to take a package containing a bottle of liquor with him to be delivered to another officer. The package indeed contains a liquor bottle, but it is specially fitted with a bomb. The plane flies off, and later Tresckow learns that it lands safely; that the bomb failed to go off for some reason. The bomb must now be retrieved, lest the plan by Tresckow and others be discovered. He contacts the man with the "package" and he then makes the trip to get the bomb back into his possession. When he arrives, he learns from General Friedrich Olbricht, that one of the other conspirators has been arrested for unknown reasons, but Tresckow retrieves the package containing the bomb without incident. This whole segment shows how dangerous it could be to plot against Hitler.

The badly wounded Stauffenberg is released from the hospital, minus his right hand, two fingers on his left hand and his left eye. Stauffenberg, a devout Catholic, meets General Olbricht in church, where Olbricht tells him the resistance movement needs someone like him. Stauffenberg tells him that as he lay on the ground badly wounded in North Africa, and thinking he would die, he hung on because he says he thought, "If I die, I will leave my children nothing but shame," but he also tells Olbricht that if any plot against Hitler fails, that he fears for what will happen to his wife and children at the hands of the Nazis. Stauffenberg goes to a meeting of a number of army officers of the German resistance, but he doesn't like their lack of a plan for what they will do if Hitler is successfully removed from power, as other Nazi leaders will be able to step in; so, he leaves the meeting without making a commitment to the resistance. Afterwards, Stauffenberg sees his wife and children, but the air raid sirens sound and Allied aircraft drop bombs in the area, which helps to convince Stauffenberg that something has to be done.

Stauffenberg is assigned to the German Replacement Army (German: Ersatzheer), which the Germans used to induct, train, equip and then dispatch men to combat units in need of replacements. This substantial military force also acted as a "home army," with the general assignment to help keep public order or quell any rebellion. Several officers of the Replacement Army were anti-Nazis, with some being active members of the resistance. Stauffenberg meets with a couple of high ranking resistance officials and proposes using the army plan for securing Germany during a rebellion, but to use the plan AGAINST the Nazis. The idea was that once Hitler was killed, that the resistance would tell the German military and the German public that the Nazis and Heinrich Himmler, the head of the notorious Nazi SS, are the ones responsible for Hitler's death; thus, the army will oppose the Nazis and the SS out of German patriotism. One person they will need is Colonel General Friedrich Fromm, as he is the head of the Replacement Army and he will be needed to issue orders if this plan is to be put into operation. Stauffenberg and Olbricht go to see Fromm and they make "obvious hints" about him becoming a high official in any post-Hitler army. Fromm listens, understands the "hints," but he tells them that they have all sworn an oath of loyalty to Hitler, and that as long as Hitler is alive, he will remain loyal, and that he will forget that this meeting has ever taken place. This leaves a major lose end, but the plotters move on with their plan for the use of the army to suppress the Nazis and the SS and they lay out an actual assassination plan to kill Hitler. Further, they establish who will form the new German government to replace the Nazis.
  
Stauffenberg goes to meet Hitler and takes a bomb along in his briefcase. The plotters hope to kill Hitler, Göring and Himmler at the meeting, but Himmler is not present, so the plan is canceled.***** A few days later, however, on July 20, 1944, Stauffenberg attends another meeting with the intention of carrying out the assassination, regardless of which other Nazi leaders are there. Stauffenberg puts his bomb laden briefcase under the conference table with Hitler nearby and then he leaves the room for a prearranged telephone call. The bomb goes off and Stauffenberg and his aide, Werner von Haeften, manage to get through security and head to a waiting plane to fly to Berlin, where Stauffenberg believes that "Valkyrie" is being put into effect. Once back in Berlin, nothing has happened, as none of the leading conspirators were bold enough to act, because there was no confirmation that Hitler was dead. In fact, reports come in saying that Hitler is alive. The order for Valkyrie is given without Colonel General Fromm's actual signature, and in fact, Fromm is arrested by the conspirators. Various scenes show the army forces rounding up Nazis and SS personnel, but Berlin itself is not under the control of the army as yet. An order goes out to arrest Joseph Goebbels, the Nazi propagandist and one of Hitler's chief subordinates. The "Grossdeutschland" Battalion is mobilized to take Goebbels into custody and to help secure Berlin.****** As the unit arrests Nazi officials, the unit's commander, Major Otto Remer, receives a new, but conflicting order to arrest Colonel Stauffenberg. Remer and his battalion go to the Goebbels residence to arrest the Nazi. Goebbels watches the army troops arrive and he places a poison capsule into the side of his mouth. He then telephones Hitler's headquarters so that, when Remer comes into the office, Goebbels hands him the phone. On the other end is Hitler himself, who orders Remer to take the conspirators alive. When Remer leaves, Goebbels pulls the poison capsule from his mouth and swallows hard.

Like Remer had been, other army officers are left with a decision to follow the orders coming from Stauffenberg and his associates in the War Ministry in Berlin, or to follow orders from Hitler's headquarters, where communications to elsewhere have resumed after being shut down in the aftermath of the explosion. More and more officers choose the latter, as word spreads that Hitler is not dead, as Stauffenberg had believed, although Stauffenberg at first remains in denial. The army communications center cuts the phone lines from the War Ministry and the main participants of the plot are now isolated. Remer and his men arrive and take the anti-Nazi officers into custody. Colonel General Fromm is released and he orders that the arrested officers be shot. The men are taken outside and one by one they face a firing squad. (Note: I've read somewhere, but I don't recall where, that before filming of the scene began, the film crew and actors observed a moment of silence for the real plotters executed in the scene, as the scene was filmed on the exact location of the executions in Berlin.)

* While not terribly important, I caught a mistake early on in the film. The scene showing Stauffenberg being wounded comes before the scene of the attempt to blow up Hitler's plane with a bomb hidden in a liquor bottle. In fact, the attempt on Hitler's life came in March 1943 and Stauffenberg was wounded in Tunisia in April 1943, just 4 to 5 weeks before the surrender of the Germans and Italians in North Africa to the British and American forces there. 

** "Valkyrie" is a term from Old Germanic, "perhaps" more specifically from Old Norse, for female subjects of the god "Odin"/"Wotan" who led selected fallen warriors to "Valhalla," a large hall ruled by Odin; thus, they are "super heroes." The Old Norse mythology has endured to the present, but it seems that the various gods and characters in these stories were widespread among the Germanic tribes, not just the Norse. English once had several words for "Valkyrie," including "wælcyrie," and "wælcyrge." Just my opinion, but the first seems to be more of a true English form, while the second may have come from the closely related Old Norse form "valkyrja." Old Norse and English are related languages, and Old Norse had many influences on English, as the Norse and the English often clashed. Norse speakers conquered and settled in large parts of northern and eastern England; thus, many Norse forms of existing English words, and some new words, came into English.      

*** Terence Stamp became a sensation in his first major film in the title role of "Billy Budd," a movie I went to see with my father when it was released in the early 1960s.

**** Remer survived the war and promoted right wing, fascist-like, political stances.

***** This part of the movie goes partially against history, as Stauffenberg did indeed meet Hitler, but it was at his villa above the town of Berchtesgaden in the Bavarian/Austrian Alps, not at his military headquarters in a forested area near Rastenburg in northeastern Germany. Hitler had remained at his villa, because his headquarters was being strengthened against attack. The meeting took place, but the bomb plan was called off, because Heinrich Himmler was not at the meeting. Not long thereafter, Hitler did, indeed, leave for his military headquarters where the assassination attempt would take place a few days later.

****** The "Grossdeutschland" Battalion was an elite German army unit that provided security in Berlin. It also provided personnel for ceremonial purposes in the capital. It was part of a very large overall military formation that also provided Hitler with an army security detail, as well as combat units for the front during the war. The name is usually rendered as "Greater Germany" in English, but it literally means, "Large Germany," as it goes back in German history to the debate over whether the German states would unite into a modern nation with Austria (known as the "large Germany" plan) or without Austria as a constituent part (known as the "small Germany" plan; "Kleindeutschland"). The Habsburg family that then ruled Austria had amassed a large number of territories populated by non Germans, which made this a contentious issue. After Austria was incorporated into Germany in March 1938, the term "Grossdeutschland" came into more use.     

Photo is from the 2009 2 disc Special Edition United Artists/MGM DVD 

WORD HISTORY:
Cost-This word is a contracted form of a previously prefixed word beginning with the common Latin prefix "co/con/com," which had the general meaning, "with, together." The second part is from Indo European "sta," which meant, "to stand," and it is the ancestor of a whole series of words in English and other Indo European languages, including original English word "stand," which is from its Germanic roots. The two parts gave Latin "constare," which meant, "to stand at/with;" thus also, "to consist of," ("components which makes it stand/be firm") and "to cost" ("a set/standing price or cost for something"). This then became "costare," and it passed into Latin-based French as "co(u)ster" (to cost) and the noun "co(u)st." English borrowed the noun in the early 1200s, but when the verb was borrowed is unclear to me (1390s?). An interesting tidbit: German also borrowed the verb, as "kosten," with the same meaning, "to cost," but the noun form, "Kost," by its older meaning in German of "a cost in money or effort for food" saw the meaning transfer to "food," and it is one of German's words for "food." 

Operation Valkyrie (2004): The Plot to Kill Hitler

Note: "Valkyrie" (German: Walküre) was the cover/code name of a plan by the German army to implement a form of strict martial law in case of a breakdown of order in Germany. The anti-Nazi plotters in the army cleverly decided to use this plan to take over the German government from the Nazis after Hitler had been killed (or perhaps, arrested). 

Main Cast: Colonel Stauffenberg: Sebastian Koch; Henning von Tresckow: Ulrich Tukur; Werner von Haeften: Hardy Krüger, Jr; Nina Stauffenberg (the Colonel's wife): Nina Kunzendorf; Joseph Goebbels: Olli Dittrich; Friedrich Fromm: Axel Milberg   

There have been a number of movies about the plot to kill Hitler on July 20, 1944, and this German/Austrian production should not be confused with the film "Valkyrie," starring Tom Cruise, released in 2008 (I have now posted the article on this movie as of July 17, 2018). The 2004 film's original German title was, "Stauffenberg," after the man who actually planted the bomb near Hitler that July day. Since the end of World War Two, Germans/Austrians* have struggled to come to terms with the Nazi period of their history. It has not been an easy thing to do, as fascism is a movement that is tough to define precisely, but it always mixes in ultra nationalism with other elements. Nationalism can make people highly sensitive to criticism of one's country, as some folks allow themselves to become so identified with their country, they seem to feel personally attacked and insulted by any attempt to point out real or perceived flaws in their country or its leaders. And, in this case, I mean criticisms coming from their fellow citizens, not from people outside of their country, which, when that happens, can quickly ruffle feathers and cause tempers to flare. The more distant the war's end has become, the more some younger Germans have tried to face their history. This movie is one of those attempts at such. It is available on DVD, and it has settings for the original German, with subtitles in English (or, presumably for other languages in other editions), or for dubbed English, so you will not have need to read along in subtitles.

The horrific crimes against humanity committed during the Nazi era left many postwar Germans very defensive and conflicted about their own roles during those times. Some tried to deal with it by pretending (or maybe even believing) that things weren't as bad as claimed by historians, foreign governments and survivors of Nazi terror, while others said, "I was just following orders," and others still felt some degree of shame and complicity. Traudl Junge (pronounced as if, "yung-eh" **), one of Hitler's personal secretaries during the last two and one half years of his life, felt so much guilt after the war, she had pretty serious emotional troubles, even involving hospitalization.*** This movie and others that have dealt with this subject, faced a difficult task, as it is almost impossible to show all of the feelings and motivations involved in the anti-Nazi German resistance. Further, films are made to make money, and that means movies are made to try to maintain audience interest, but actual history is not always so dramatic at every turn. The movie does correctly show that Claus von Stauffenberg, played by German actor Sebastian Koch, was supportive of Hitler for quite some time. The thing to remember about the anti-Nazis is, they were NOT saints who opposed Hitler and the Nazis from the very first, but rather, they were people who gradually saw that Hitler was exposing Germany to great danger by leading the country into an ever expanding war, and that later, Hitler's racism and murder would also drag Germany's honor and reputation into the abyss with the defeated nation. This is "essentially" Stauffenberg's own history up until about 1942, and it is so depicted in the film. He begins to learn of other officers who are more than a little troubled by the course of the war and by atrocities committed by Germans, especially in Russia. One of those officers is Henning von Tresckow, played by German actor Ulrich Tukur, who moves Stauffenberg's doubts about the Hitler regime along by providing him with an eyewitness to mass murder. The disillusioned Stauffenberg is sent to Tunisia in North Africa, where the German and Italian forces are facing the end of their military resistance to the Allies. His rising anti-Nazi feelings are reinforced when a young German officer from Stauffenberg's home province of Swabia is killed just after reporting for duty. He sees the futility of it all and he smashes Hitler's photo.

Allied aircraft attack a German column and Stauffenberg is severely wounded; so severely, in fact, he is sent back to Germany for treatment. He loses his left eye (over which he always wore a black patch after his release from the hospital), his right hand, and two fingers on his left hand. He is now also more convinced that Hitler must be removed from power, which means Hitler will have to be killed. The anti-Nazi plotters eventually agree to have Stauffenberg make the actual move to kill Hitler, as he is on the staff of the German Replacement Army (German: Ersatzheer), the part of the army responsible for inducting, training and then sending men to units as replacements, and also responsible for the raising of new units. This gives Stauffenberg periodic access to Hitler at military conferences, and indeed, on July 20, he will again be in Hitler's presence. Plans are made to take over the German government once Hitler is dead, and on July 20 the whole operation begins with Stauffenberg and his aide flying to Hitler's military headquarters in northeastern Germany, located in a forested area of East Prussia. Stauffenberg carries the bomb into the military conference in his briefcase. After a momentary exchange with Hitler, Stauffenberg gets as close as possible to the Führer and he places the briefcase under the large conference table. Stauffenberg then exists the conference with the excuse of a telephone call. I'm not going to go into everything that happens, as much of the film deals with actual historical details, as known. When the bomb explodes, Stauffenberg is convinced that Hitler could not possibly have survived, a view quickly reinforced when he sees a body being carried out of the devastated room covered with Hitler's cloak. Stauffenberg flies back to Berlin only to learn that virtually nothing has been done to advance the take over of the government. The problem: reports that Hitler is alive! Stauffenberg tries to convince other conspirators that the Nazis are lying and that Hitler is really dead. Orders go out to military units in Berlin to ignore orders from Nazi leaders, and some SS officers and men are arrested in Vienna and Paris (which is still in German hands), but the conspirators mistakenly leave a pro-Hitler major, Otto Remer, played by Italian actor Enrico Mutti, in charge of part of one of Germany's elite army units, "Grossdeutschland." Remer is summoned to the home of Nazi propagandist Joseph Goebbels, who then contacts Hitler directly by telephone. Hitler speaks to Remer and issues orders to put down the revolt and the major sets about doing just that. Once it is confirmed that Hitler is alive, the plot, already on life support, is left with the final acts to be played out; namely, the arrest of the army leaders of the conspiracy. General Fromm, the actual head of the Replacement Army, is, at first, arrested by the conspirators when he won't commit himself to the anti-Hitler side, but he is then freed by pro-Hitler army troops. Fromm sets about rounding up the officers in the building, including Stauffenberg.

Longtime anti-Nazi (dating back to the 1930s), General Ludwig Beck, asks that he be allowed to take his own life, but he botches it, and Fromm orders others to finish off Beck. The other officers are led outside during the early part of July 21. A vehicle's headlights are used to provide light for the executions. When Stauffenberg is led up, just before the order to fire (German: Feuer) is given, his aide, Werner von Haeften (played by Hardy Krüger, Jr.), attempts to run in front of him, and both are killed by the execution squad. We then hear a part of the actual radio broadcast of Hitler speaking about the assassination plot.***** The film ends with General von Tresckow, one of the leading conspirators, holding a hand grenade to his body to commit suicide just behind the Eastern Front, where he was stationed.             

* For the sake of simplicity; hereafter, I will use "German," in the broad ethnic sense, to include Austrians, as well as people of German ethnicity who lived in German communities in other countries back then. Switzerland and Liechtenstein are excluded, but it should be noted, some men from both countries did serve in the German armed forces during the war, including in the Waffen SS, although the overall numbers were very small. To make this clear too, however, I must also say that MANY non Germans participated in Hitler's military or in his murder apparatus, in some way.

** The German name "Junge" is closely related to the English name, "Young."   

*** For more detail about Traudl Junge, I did a three part series on her. Here are the links:

http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2013/02/traudl-junge-working-for-evil-part-one.html

http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2013/02/traudl-junge-working-for-evil-part-two.html

http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2013/02/traudl-junge-working-for-evil-part-three.html

**** General Friedrich Fromm has long been a controversial figure regarding the anti-Hitler conspiracy. Fromm's exact involvement with the conspirators has never really been satisfactorily explained, but he certainly generally knew of the conspiracy and he did not report it, which legally made him culpable. Since Fromm had the main conspirators in Berlin executed within hours (detractors feel Fromm 'conveniently' had these officers executed, as they knew of his complicity), it's doubtful we'll ever know everything about Fromm's participation prior to July 20, 1944. Even though the Gestapo could not make a direct link with Fromm and the conspiracy, he remained under heavy suspicion and the Nazis removed him from his military positions. Two months before the end of the war, Fromm was sentenced to death by a Nazi court for "cowardice before the enemy" (German: "Feigheit vor dem Feind;" see Word History, below). The sentence was carried out just days later.

***** As Hitler's headquarters was in an isolated part of Germany, a recording unit had to be  dispatched there by Goebbels to record Hitler's speech, then the recording was transported from there to a plane and flown to Berlin. It wasn't broadcast on German radio until late at night.  

Photo is from the 2009 The Weinstein Company DVD 

 WORD HISTORY:
Fiend-This word goes back to Indo European "pheyeh," which had the notion, "to give pain, to hurt." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "fijand," which meant, "to hate;" perhaps from the notion, "we hate someone or something that brings us pain," or perhaps even the reverse, "someone or something that causes pain, hates us." The Germanic form gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "feond," which meant, "enemy" (someone we hate, someone who wants to do us harm; thus, the opposite of friend). This meaning even expanded later to mean, "the enemy of humanity, enemy of all;" thus, it was also a way of referring to, "the devil, Satan," and later to the less specific, "evil spirit." Its primary meaning of "enemy," which it shared as something of a synonym with the old form of modern "foe," began to be lost in English, when a form of the word "enemy" was borrowed from French, although "foe" has kept that meaning to this day. The notions of "evil spirit" and "someone wishing to harm us," still underlie the modern meanings of "fiend," as in the meaning of being possessed (in the sense of being "obsessed"); thus, "I'm a real music fiend," or the less flattering, "He is a dope fiend." The primary modern meaning, "someone who is evil and cruel," still connects to the old meaning, just not in the direct sense of "enemy" today. The Old English form later became "feend/fend," before what became the modern form. Other Germanic forms: German has "Feind" (enemy), Low German Saxon has "Feend" (enemy), West Frisian "fijân" (enemy), Dutch "vijand" (enemy), Danish "fjende" (enemy), Swedish and Norwegian "fiende" (enemy), Icelandic "fjandi" (enemy, but no longer the primary word for such). 

Hero Against Hitler: General Ludwig Beck

This was first published 11/4/11


"Heroes Against Hitler:" Ludwig Beck

One of the most important figures in the German resistance to Hitler was Colonel General Ludwig Beck. He was born in what is now a part of Wiesbaden in the German state of Hessen. Beck served in World War One and remained in the treaty-limited army after the war. At first Beck was favorable toward Hitler, whose plans to expand the army were seen by him as a positive sign in Germany's restoration from the defeat of 1918. He became Chief of the General Staff (Chef des Generalstabes),* and as such had knowledge of Hitler's various military plans. Beck was NOT antiwar, and he believed wars, although limited in size, would be impossible to avoid as Germany moved to regain its position within Europe. His differences with Hitler largely centered around his belief that Hitler was moving too fast, and that a Hitler-planned attack on Czechoslovakia in 1938 would bring Britain and France, and possibly the Soviet Union into a war against an unprepared Germany,** bringing her a devastating defeat,*** a view shared by other top generals, but not all. Beck worked for months trying to convince Hitler not to attack Czechoslovakia, seemingly believing Hitler had been influenced by other military advisers to attack Czechoslovakia. Such was Hitler's hold over the people around him, who wanted to believe mistakes were the fault of others, not the Führer. Beck, however, came to realize that Hitler was the main culprit, only bolstered in his beliefs by others. In the late summer of 1938, Beck resigned his position, and thus lost any influence over future military policies.

As Hitler pushed the question of Germans in Czechoslovakia to the front burner, Beck and other opponents of the regime wanted Britain and France to take a hard stand against Hitler's demands, and thus give the German resistance a chance to topple the Nazis from power. The opposite happened, as an agreement with Britain and France was signed in Munich giving Hitler control of the German areas of Czechoslovakia, and this diminished the immediate desire of many conspirators to unseat the Nazi government, as Hitler rose to new heights of popularity. Beck remained an active leader in trying to recruit opponents of the regime, which certainly took a turn in his direction with the severe losses suffered by German forces in Russia. It all ended with the bomb planted in Hitler's headquarters in East Prussia on July 20, 1944. The bomb exploded, but Hitler survived and the plot to take over the German government, with Beck as its temporary head, fell apart. Beck was taken into custody the same day by the head of the German Replacement Army ("Ersatzheer") and attempted to commit suicide, but only wounded himself. Another officer then finished the job. Beck and some other members of the resistance to the Nazis were given a memorial in Berlin, which still exists today. Beck is seen by many as the first major opponent of the Nazi regime and a sort of leader of the German resistance; after all, he was a high ranking general.

* The German General Staff was a group of select, highly dedicated, well trained professional officers who were experts in all aspects of warfare. They were noted for their detailed planning going well back into the 1800s, first as part of the Prussian army, and then in unified Germany from 1871, and it is largely due to this group that the German reputation for detail and efficiency in military matters developed. To many outsiders, they became the symbol of Prussian/German militarism, because their very lives were so devoted to military matters, and thus, war.

** Prominent British historian A.J.P. Taylor later essentially argued that Hitler's talk of war against Czechoslovakia was more of an act to get his way, and that his convincing performance made the western powers back down and give him the German areas of Czechoslovakia. Of course, other historians have argued that Hitler wanted such a war. Since Hitler didn't really have a single close friend to whom he confided his innermost thoughts, nor did he keep a diary to anyone's knowledge, I suppose we'll never really know for certain, and these are all academic arguments. After getting the agreement from Britain and France for Germany to receive the heavily German-populated Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia (the Czechs weren't even invited), Hitler did, at times, complain the agreement had deprived him of a war against Czechoslovakia. Whether this was talk for effect as a prelude to his next move is another historical debate.

*** The idea that Czechoslovakia would have fallen as easy prey to Hitler's forces is optimistic, in my opinion. The Czechs were well trained, equipped, and motivated, with formidable fortifications along their mainly mountainous borders with Germany (mountainous terrain gave them another advantage). Czech military equipment was so good, much of it was later used by the Germans to equip some units of their army, after all of Czechoslovakia was occupied by Hitler. This would have been far from a walk over, and had it taken place, it may have brought Hitler and his regime down.

WORD HISTORY:
Ship-The ultimate origins of this word are uncertain, although some tie it to an Indo European source, "skei(b)," that meant "cut, rip," and then Old Germanic used it with the idea being of a ship "cutting through the water, ripping up the water," or of, "cutting or ripping out logs to make floating vessels." The idea of a "water going vessel" does seem to come from Old Germanic, which had "skipam" or "skipan," with that meaning, "water going vessel." This then helped produce Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "scip," with the same meaning. The spelling "ship" has been around for many centuries in English. The verb form, "to ship," came from the noun in the latter part of the 1200s or the early 1300s. Common throughout the other Germanic languages: West Frisian "skip," German "Schiff," Low German "Schipp" (although some low dialects have "Schepp"), Dutch "schip," Norwegian and Icelandic "skip," Swedish "skepp," and Danish "skib." By the way, Old Italian borrowed the word as "scifo," meaning "small boat," from Old High German/Lombardic^ "skif/scif." This was borrowed into French as "esquif," "small open boat," and in the 1500s this then was borrowed into English as "skiff."

^ Lombardic was a Germanic language spoken by the Germanic tribe, the Lombards, who settled in northern Italy, and gave their name to the Italian region of "Lombardy" (Lombardia). A moment of silence, please, as Lombardic died out several centuries ago.

The German Question, Part One Hundred Fifty-One

Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Four/B
"German Heroes: The Plot Against Hitler"

Resistance (German: "Widerstand") to Hitler and the Nazis was not easy for the average German, nor any German for that matter. Spies reported the least little things to Nazi authorities, and this could result in imprisonment or even death for the perpetrator. Here is where fear also took over. By instilling fear in people, Germans were careful in just about everything they said, and some undoubtedly even reported "unwise" statements to the authorities made by neighbors, fearful that if they didn't report it, and the person who made the statement was found out anyhow, they themselves might be implicated. It was a vast circle of fear. It is not easy for most people to oppose their own country, and Germans were much the same, especially once the war started. Still, some searched their souls and decided that resistance to Hitler and criminality was more important than Germany's war effort under the Nazi regime. And again, there was always that fear of being found out. During the war, Sophie Scholl, her brother, Hans, and a friend, Christoph Probst, were arrested for distributing leaflets at the University of Munich urging Germans to resist the Nazis and the war. They were "tried" before a Nazi court (see below) and beheaded shortly after the sentencing. There are several memorials and honors to this young courageous German woman and the other young Germans who tried to fight evil, and who gave their lives doing so. I hope all of you will be interested enough to read more about these German heroes, or to watch the movie, "Sophie Scholl-The Final Days," a German language movie, with English subtitles. (Note added 12/8/22: To be clear, opponents of the Nazi regime were NOT perfect people, and I doubt that any of them will ever be proposed for sainthood. Many had been supportive of Hitler until the war turned against Germany, while others were opposed to Hitler much earlier, especially around the time of the crisis over the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia; but even then, one of the main objections to Hitler was that he was going to get Germany into a war it was not prepared to fight. Some were outright Nazis. So, there were seldom, if ever, any high sounding ideals, rather for military people it was a very simple and practical feeling that the country was not ready to fight a major war. On the other hand, the reality with these people was, they chose to oppose Hitler, at whatever time during his rule, under very dangerous circumstances, and indeed, many paid with their lives for their decision. Would we rather that they had remained loyal to the fanatical furious Führer?)  

The military was in something of a different category. With many German officers coming from the nobility, there was a tendency by these men to look down on some of the Nazi thugs as, well.... THUGS! Highly respected by the German public, officers enjoyed sort of a club of their own; thus, much of the organized resistance to Hitler came from the German military, with some government officials also involved. General Ludwig Beck, one of the early opponents of the regime, resigned prior to the war, when he felt Britain and France were too timid in dealing with Hitler. He may have resigned his military position, but he remained active in conspiracies to remove Hitler from power, including the option of assassinating the Nazi leader. As the war went down hill, military officers knew first hand that Germany stood a good chance of losing the war, no matter what all the Nazi propaganda told the public. They also knew a good deal about atrocities committed by Germans as part of Nazi policy, especially in Russia. Still, they had sworn an oath to Hitler personally, and that oath was not easily overcome by many, even with the knowledge that the oath had been given to a criminal.

There were various plots against Hitler, but the most famous plot came very near to killing him. It took place on July 20, 1944 at Hitler's military headquarters in northeastern Germany, near Rastenburg, in the province of East Prussia. Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg* carried a bomb inside his briefcase into a military conference that day. He was to give a report at the conference, but excused himself "for a phone call" just moments before the bomb went off. The bomb, activated by acid that ate through a trip wire, exploded under the conference table, but Hitler was only injured; one of the other officers having moved Stauffenberg's briefcase to the other side of the stout table support so he could see the maps better.** Stauffenberg left the compound and flew to Berlin fully believing Hitler was dead. Other conspirators in Berlin and elsewhere (including Paris and Vienna), mainly army officers, awaited confirmation that Hitler had indeed been killed. Some Nazi officials were taken into custody in various locations across Germany and in occupied territories. A group of army soldiers was sent to arrest propagandist Joseph Goebbels, but Goebbels cleverly put a call through to Hitler, who told the officer in charge, Major Otto Remer, that he was very much alive, and that the officer and his troops were to arrest the conspirators instead. With Hitler still alive, the plot fell apart. Later that night, Hitler addressed the German nation by radio from his headquarters (the speech had been recorded by Hitler earlier and then transported from the headquarters for broadcast). Secret agent reports showed the attack to be generally unpopular with the German public, which saw the attack as "unpatriotic" in a time of war (fascists LOVE to wrap themselves in patriotism and claim that acts specifically against them are actually acts against the country).

Stauffenberg, Beck, field marshals, generals, mayors and hundreds of others were executed as a consequence. Those arrested were put on "trial" before the Volksgerichtshof, the so called "People's Court,*** led by fanatical Nazi judge, Roland Freisler, who screamed insults at defendants. The proceedings were filmed, as were the resulting executions.

Anyone suspected of having participated in, or having known about, the plot, was arrested. Field Marshal Rommel's name was mentioned by some conspirators under interrogation, although apparently he was not actively involved, and his family later maintained that Rommel wanted Hitler arrested, but did not support killing him. Whatever the case, Rommel, home on leave to recover from injuries,**** was visited by German officers who brought an ultimatum with them. Hitler gave Rommel the choice of killing himself, and being given full military honors, as having died from his wounds, or of being arrested and tried, in which case there would be no guarantees for the safety of his wife and son. Some choice! Rommel chose to take his own life, and Hitler at least kept his word. Rommel was given a hero's funeral, with none other than Field Marshal von Rundstedt, the most respected of German generals, giving a eulogy. Rundstedt, upon later learning the truth about Rommel's death, lamented that he had believed the Nazi story that Rommel had died of his injuries.

As I noted above, please read more or watch documentaries or docu-dramas (one of the more recent ones starring Tom Cruise) to learn more about these German heroes. Historians usually choose to dwell upon all of the negatives about the Germans during the Nazi period, with good reason, and I know I have too in these most recent articles, but we can't forget that there were Germans who tried to stop the madness that had enveloped their country. They saw evil and they tried to stop it. We all should be very proud of them. It is not without reason Germans have placed a memorial plaque at the site of the executions of Stauffenberg and four others of the main conspirators against Hitler. The heading to the plaque reads: "Hier starben für Deutschland" ("Here died for Germany"); it then lists the names of the men: Colonel General Ludwig Beck; General of Infantry Friedrich Olbricht; Colonel Claus Count Schenk Von Stauffenberg; Colonel Albrecht Ritter Mertz Von Quirnheim; First Lieutenant Werner Von Haeften.   

* Stauffenberg, who also carried the noble title "Graf;" that is, "Count," had been severely wounded in North Africa in 1943, losing his right hand, two fingers on his left hand, and his left eye, over which he wore a black patch. No one could claim he hadn't sacrificed for his country, but he made the ultimate sacrifice by opposing Hitler, as he was executed in Berlin early on July 21, 1944, on orders of General Fromm, the commander of the Replacement Army, which was headquartered in Berlin.

** The military conferences normally took place in a concrete bunker, but it was being refurbished and strengthened against potential air attack. On July 20th the conference was held in a wooden conference room, with the windows open, due to the heat of July. Various experts have noted that Hitler, and probably all present, likely would have died if the conference had been in the usual concrete bunker, as the force of the blast would not have easily escaped, which is what happened with the wooden conference room and open windows. As it happened, four people died out of more than 20 in the conference room, and Hitler only suffered some contusions and bruises, plus a damaged eardrum.

*** The "People's Court" was a Nazi invention. It was set up early in Hitler's rule to get around the legal court system in place under the Weimar Republic. It was truly a "Nazi court system," and few people were ever acquitted after going before this court, with the verdicts in most cases, being determined beforehand.

**** Rommel was the commander of a German army group in France. In July of 1944, during the Normandy campaign, his staff car was strafed by an Allied aircraft. The car crashed and Rommel suffered severe injuries, especially to his skull and face.

WORD HISTORY:
Plot-This word is a mystery word. It appears in English circa 1000, although that doesn't necessarily mean it didn't exist in spoken English before that time. Where it came from is unknown. Its recorded history shows that initially it meant "parcel of land," a meaning still present in English to this day. From this meaning also came "a plan of grounds, a map." In this meaning, the "plan" part became the part that stuck, and from the notion of "calculating the dimensions for a map or sketch," we have its meaning, "scheme, plan" and also, "a story line, the major plan of a book or script." The verb was derived from the noun in the 1500s. It appears the English word was reinforced by French "complot," which had the general meaning "plans joined together (often secretly)." This was borrowed from French in the 1500s, and its ultimate origins are also unknown, but it goes back to "compeloter," with the meanings "com"="combine," and "peloter"="ball;" thus "combine into a ball, put together." In English, undoubtedly under the influence of the native word "plot," the "com" prefix, denoting "combined, joining," was dropped from the French borrowing. German too borrowed this word from French, as "Komplott," and it means "a plot, a scheme."