The Normans & The English Language

When the Normans* invaded England, the process of incorporating hundreds of Norman French words into English started. Many, but certainly not all, of our more complex terms come from Norman French (some were also borrowed later from "continental" French), but nearly all of our most commonly used words are still from Old English; that is, Anglo-Saxon. It has been said "by some," that when Winston Churchill gave his famous defiant speech against the Nazis in 1940, he deliberately used "almost" all words derived from Old English in the part about, "We shall fight on the beaches," etc. Anyway, the French dialect carried to England by the Normans is commonly referred to as "Anglo-Norman," rather than as "French."

The victory of William, Duke of Normandy, over the English brought about a natural change to the ruling structure of England, as William, then as king and known as King William I, ruled with Norman officials, as English nobles were removed from such positions; that is, those English nobles who were not killed. The site of William's major victory over the English near Hastings, in southeastern England, was given a Norman French name, "Battle," a word which became part of the English language, but which also showed how English was under pressure from words imported by the Normans. William ordered the building of an abbey at the battlefield location as a memorial to the dead there, and to comply with the Pope's admonishment for the Normans having killed so many people to complete their takeover of England. This takeover went on for a few years and the Normans literally laid waste to large areas of England. Many English people were slain, while others died from disease or starvation as a result of the destruction of their farms and towns. The abbey was not completed until after William had died, but it is still in existence. While set more than a century later, the book and the movie "Ivanhoe" does convey the very contentious relationship between the  the Norman rulers and their English subjects.** Some of this animosity is also shown in the film, "Becket," which covers the historical feud between the Christian church, represented in England by Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and King Henry II, the great grandson of William the Conqueror.***   

The Normans brought something else to England... the castle (Norman French: "castel"). In order to administer the country, the Normans built numerous castles to also provide some sense of safety from the still hostile English population. "Castle" was another word imported into the English language and it also was used to describe fortified towns. Words having to do with Norman nobles and rule came into English: "baron," "duke" and "govern." Likewise, some words of a military nature also were taken into English from the Normans: "archer" (although the English synonym "bowman" survives to this day), "soldier" (from Norman French "soudeour/soudier," although its spelling with the "l" was directly influenced by Latin), "army" (French: armée).

As part of their rule in England, the legal system showed the tremendous influence of Norman French upon the English language, with such basic words as "justice" and "judge" being borrowed into English, but there were many more, although some of the words may have been borrowed more directly from Latin, with reinforcement from Norman French, as Latin was also used in legal proceedings in England by the Normans. The word "legal" itself was borrowed by English (Old French "légal"). 

Last, but not least, there was the Norman influence on words about food. English retained many of its words for kinds of animals, but the Normans brought their own terms for the animals when used for food: modern English forms of the words: "cow, pig/swine, deer, calf, chicken, sheep," and the Norman terms for the food products: "beef, pork, venison, veal, poultry, mutton." 

*The Normans were originally North Germanic speakers, being what most folks commonly refer to as Vikings. They sailed up the rivers along the Atlantic coast, raiding inland, even near Paris. The Frankish (see note at end of this paragraph) king, in an effort to stop the raids, gave these folks land in the northwestern part of his kingdom. The people called the raiders "Northmen," as they came from Scandinavia, and the term stuck, although it was contracted into "Normans," and the area given to them by the king came to be called "Normandy." They quickly adapted to the local (majority) population, as their children and grandchildren grew up speaking the local dialect of "French," which was somewhat different from the French dialect of the Paris region. NOTE: The Franks were a large Germanic tribe, probably formed by the inclusion of many smaller Germanic tribes. The main elements of the Franks conquered much of Gaul, eventually giving their own name to the territory, “France,” and to the people and language, “French.” Interestingly in German, the word for France is “Frankreich;” that is, “empire of the Franks.” Gaul (named after the Celtic people, “the Gauls”) had been a Roman province for centuries by the time the Franks arrived, and the population spoke various dialects of Latin. Ever so gradually over a few centuries, the conquerors became the conquered, so to speak, as the Frankish language essentially was absorbed into the existing and more widespread Latin dialects. Frankish, however, did give many words to the “new” French language before it disappeared as a truly separate language in that area.

** This is the link to my article about "Ivanhoe:" http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2017/02/ivanhoe-robert-taylor-in-title-role.html  

*** "Ivanhoe" is set in the time of King Richard I, the son of Henry II. 

**** French is a Latin-based language, with a number of Germanic influences, including some vocabulary, primarily from its namesake language, Frankish, a Germanic language that was absorbed into the Latin dialects of the area we now call France (named after the Franks) in the time leading up to the Norman Invasion. A good number of German dialects today trace their heritage back to Frankish, including the dialect of Lorraine (Lothringisch), Luxembourg (Lëtzebuergesch), the Nuremberg area (the area is called "Franken" and the dialect is "Fränkisch") and several others. Not only these dialects, but the Dutch language comes from Frankish.

WORD HISTORY:
Manor-This word, related to "mansion" (a Latin-derived word borrowed from French), goes back to Indo European "men," which had the meaning, "to stay," also in the sense, "dwell." This gave Latin "manere," meaning, "to stay, to dwell." This passed into Latin-based Old French as "maneir," which then became "manoir," and both forms retained the Latin meaning. "Manoir" also became a noun meaning, "dwelling place, home," but also later, "main home of a lord or noble on his property holdings." This was carried to England by the Normans in their dialect as "maner," and it was borrowed into English in the second half of the 1200s. 

"Becket:" Richard Burton & Peter O'Toole Star

This 1964 movie has two major stars: Richard Burton as Thomas Becket and Peter O'Toole as King Henry II.* While John Gielgud plays King Louis VII of France, Burton and Becket dominate the picture. Understand, the film has some historical flaws, as it correctly portrays the strains between the Norman nobility and their Saxon subjects, and it has Becket as a Saxon, but he was a Norman. There are other historical errors,** but the movie was based on a play written by Frenchman Jean Anouilh, which contained the errors, and the film did not correct them, which would have required a major rewrite. Make note of the historical flaws, but enjoy the performances.

The movie centers around the longtime friendship between Becket and King Henry II, the great grandson of William the Conqueror. The king admires Becket's keen intelligence. Henry is in a battle with the Church, since he needs money to fund a war in France, and he wants to tax the Church to raise that money, something adamantly opposed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, a man well along in years. While in France, the king receives word the archbishop has died and he decides to appoint Becket as his successor, figuring he will have a faithful supporter in the position. That's not what happens. Becket takes his position very seriously and when one of Henry's nobles has a priest tried before the civil courts for a crime, then kills the priest when he tries to escape, Becket excommunicates the noble for not having brought the priest in for trial before a church court. Henry is furious! The king presses one of Becket's enemies in the Church, the Bishop of London, played by Donald Wolfit, to support a charge of embezzlement against the archbishop, dating to the time he was Lord Chancellor of England, a position to which he had been appointed by Henry, prior to naming him to the archbishop's position. When some nobles try to read the charges against Becket, he scares the hell out of them by declaring their "immortal souls" to be in danger by judging him with made up charges. He appeals for protection and for a judgment by the pope. Henry, who has secretly been observing the confrontation, and still torn between his friendship and enmity with Becket, laughs, saying, "He's made mincemeat of them. I'm surrounded by fools. Becket is the only intelligent man in my kingdom, and he's against me."

Becket flees to France and is granted protection by King Louis VII, played by John Gielgud. Louis likes to tweak the King of England's nose. The French king also provides Becket with escort to Rome, where Becket tells his case to the pope (Alexander III). The pope retains Becket in his position as head of the English Church, but places him in a monastery in France. Becket eventually asks King Louis to get Henry to meet him in France, which he does, on the beach there. After some wrangling, Henry agrees to allow Becket to return to England.

Henry engages in a bout of drinking with some of his nobles, who tell the king how Becket has returned to England and been cheered by the Saxon populace. Henry asks, "Will no one rid me of this meddlesome priest?" This prompts some of his nobles to go to Canterbury and to kill Becket. To atone for the murder, Henry is whipped by Saxon monks. Henry tells his nobles that the murderers will also pay, as all must do penance. Henry goes before the assembled crowd and tells them he has received a positive answer from the pope to his request to name Becket a saint. The crowd cheers. 

Just a little note: if you're like me, you'll get a few laughs the way Henry acts toward his children, especially his then successor, also named Henry. In one scene, the boys are playing sword fighting and Henry comes out, but so little does he know about his sons that he lifts the helmet of one of the boys and asks him, "Which one are you?" When the boy answers, "Henry III," the king shouts, "Not yet, you aren't!" Only a reigning king could have a numeral after his name. In another scene, the king chases the younger Henry from the dining hall with the exclamation, "Here's my royal foot up you're royal buttocks!"  

* Peter O'Toole later played King Henry II again in, "The Lion in Winter," which also starred Katharine Hepburn as his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine. 

** For instance, the film has Henry's mother present in a scene after Becket's return to Canterbury from France, but in reality, his mother had died a couple of years prior to that. 
 
Photo is from the 2007 MPI Home Video DVD

WORD HISTORY:
Priest -It may sound strange, but this word is distantly related to "cow." The core of the word goes back to Indo European "guos," which meant, "cattle, cows," with a form of the prefix "per" (meaning, "before, ahead, in front of") added, which gave Indo European "pruos," with the meaning, "leader of cattle/cows." This gave Ancient Greek the transliterated form, "présbus," which meant, "older/elder." This then produced Greek "presbýteros," which meant, "(an) elder." Latin borrowed the word from Greek as "presbyter," with the same meaning. The Germanic languages "seem" to have borrowed the word from Gallo-Romance "prestre," by which time the word had taken on the "elder religious leader," with Old English having "preost," Old High German having "prestar/priester" (modern German "Priester"), Old Saxon having "prestar" (modern Low German "Preester"). The English form then became "preest," before the modern form.

The German Question, Part Six

Beginning before the death of Charlemagne in 814 A.D., the eastern border areas of his empire were secured by fortified territories. The territories were given by the emperor to nobles to administer. These nobles had fairly substantial military forces at their disposal, and the areas were called “Marks” or “Marches” (see Word History below the notes). As time passed, these various Marks had their own boundaries and designations changed, one of the most famous being the “Ostmark,” or “East Mark,” which formed what became a substantial part of modern Austria, and another, “Mark Brandenburg,” which became the modern area of Berlin and environs.

From about 1000 A.D. and continuing for the next couple of centuries, Germans began to migrate from densely populated western areas of Europe into many of the sparsely Slavic populated regions of eastern Europe.* Since Christianity had spread throughout most of western and central Europe, and part of eastern Europe, Church authorities looked upon these “Christian” migrations with favor.** The Germans, who brought various skills and even wealth with them, were even welcomed by the Slavic rulers of many of these areas, and much of this relocation was done peacefully. It seems that some of these Germans eventually were assimilated (absorbed) into the Slavic population, thus losing their “German” identity, but many formed essentially all German communities, or the German population overtook the Slavic population in certain areas, eventually absorbing (assimilating) the Slavs, who then lost their “Slavic” identity. These latter were/are usually referred to as “Wends.”

*This was something of a “reverse migration,” as earlier, Germanic tribes, some, but not all, later to be called “Germans,” had tended to migrate from east to west.

** It should be noted that the Franks eventually subdued their main rival among the Germanic tribes, the Saxons, and forcibly “Christianized” them. The wars, which accomplished that feat, continued from about 780 and ended in about 804 A.D. The Saxons are very important to our story, and they were a large confederation of Germanic tribes in northern Europe, part of which migrated to Britain along with other Germanic tribal elements, conquered the local Celtic population after the withdrawal of Roman forces during the 400s A.D., and founded England ("the land of the Angles," after one of those Germanic tribes, the Angles).

WORD HISTORY:
Mark-This word goes back to the Indo European base "mereg," which meant "border, edge, boundary" (Latin, another Indo European language, had "margo," which meant "margin"). The Old Germanic offshoot was "marko." This gave Old English "mearc/merc," which continued the same basic meaning with "boundary, limit," but eventually it also came to mean "a sign of a boundary or border," and this eventually evolved into any sign designating a boundary, perhaps traced on a map. These various general meanings gave us our more modern meanings of "putting a mark on something to show ownership," "marking something on paper," "putting a mark on something (as in "Oops!) and "in taking notice" ("Mark my words"). The other Germanic languages have: German has "Mark" (noun), Low German  has "Mark" (noun) and "marken" (verb), West Frisian has "merke" (both noun and verb form), Dutch has "merk" (noun) and "markeren/merken" (verbs), Danish has "maerke" (noun) and "markere/maerke" (verbs), Icelandic has "merki" (noun) and "merkja" (verb), Norwegian has "merke" (noun) and "merke/markere" (verbs), Swedish has "märke" (noun) and "märka" (verb).

Why Do We Call Them These Names?

Updated May 11, 2014

As part of English word histories, I thought you might like to know why we call various groups of people certain names. By the title, you probably thought I was going to get into why we call some people SOBs, asses, idiots, and such, but see, I fooled ya! My intention is to come back to this overall subject occasionally and cover terms for other ethnic, nationality, and linguistic groups. For this article, I figured I'd stick with terms more closely associated with English, and since English is a Germanic language, I'll start with terms for various Germanic groups. Remember, Germanic and German are NOT the same thing. Germans are Germanic, but all Germanic people are NOT German. See below why there is common confusion among English speakers for these terms, but stay focused, because it can be a bit confusing and hard to follow. Just a note, I've tried to put Old English spelling/sounds into the equivalent modern spelling, as Old English had some different "letters/symbols" no longer in use to represent sounds of that time.

Dutch-I would say that most Americans have heard of  "Deutsch," (pronounced doytsh) for German. Well Dutch is simply the same word with a slight variation in the way it is pronounced. In many language groups, in a number of cases, the letters/sounds "d" and "t" were used sort of interchangeably. This is certainly true within the Germanic languages, and as you'll see further below, the ancestor of "Dutch" had a "t," not a "d." I believe part of the reason for this is, long ago, the sounds of what developed into our more modern sounds were not as distinct as they are (or "supposed" to be) today. Remember, in more modern times languages have developed "standard" forms that are taught in schools, with generally regular spellings and some general pronunciation guidelines, although that certainly doesn't mean that people pronounce words the same, by any stretch of the imagination. Further, the above mentioned "Deutsch" is also pronounced and spelled in a variety of ways in German dialects, including "Teutsch," "Tüütsch" and "Düütsch" (my grandmother pretty much said "Deitsch" =dytsh, with a "y" or long "i" sound). In more modern times, it is easier to define "dialect" as a variation from the standard, school taught language, although even then, not all speakers of a particular language agree what is standard.

For quite some time in history, the people in what we now call The Netherlands (frequently just called Holland by many English speakers), Germany, Austria, parts of Belgium, a part of northern Italy, eastern France, a large part of Switzerland, Luxembourg, and Liechtenstein were referred to as Germans by English speakers, and indeed, the Dutch and the others just listed were a part of the old German Empire. Initially, during the 12th Century, the word was a general term for all of these "Germans;" however, at some point during the 1600s, a form of the pronunciation we use became identified more specifically to people in Holland, which was actually only a part of what is now The Netherlands. Back then it was usually spelled "duutsch." The term goes back to Old High German "duitisc," which had a meaning "of the people or belonging to the people." This notion of belonging to the people came to be applied to the basic common language of these Germanic speakers. (Please note that they didn't all speak exactly alike, as there were many dialects, but back many, many centuries ago, speakers of these various Germanic dialects, including the Anglo-Saxons in England, could still basically understand one another, although undoubtedly at times with difficulty.) The term went back further to Old Germanic "theudo," which meant "popular, of the same people, national (in the sense of related people)." Old English had "theodisc," which likewise meant "belonging to the people," and also referred to the "common Germanic language." Old English also had "theod," which meant "people, nation (in the sense 'related people')." The Old Germanic term went back to Indo European "teuta," which meant "people." Just for the sake of example, Old Lithuanian, an Indo European language related to English further down the family tree, had "tauta," also meaning "people," and Oscan, also related further down the family tree, had "touto," which had the sense "community;" that is, "sense of people together in common." The term was also picked up by Latin and used at times back in the 7th Century to refer to the language of the area of Mercia,* England; that is, Old English. Then it was used just a short time later in Latin to refer to the broad conglomeration of Germanic dialects on the Continent, excluding the north Germanic dialects (these northern dialects became Danish, Icelandic Norwegian and Swedish). This "dutch/deutsch" term for German dialects then was extended to mean the people who spoke the language, and by the 1200s, the term "Diutisklant" was being used to describe the area where these people lived. In case you didn't notice, "Diutisklant" was the original word for the modern "Deutschland;" that is, "Germany."

In English, by the 1600s, the term began to be applied more specifically to "people or things" of  the Netherlands, as that area had become a separate state, independent of the Old German Empire by that time, and a very major rival of England for trade and for colonies in the New World. Remember, New Amsterdam was established in the New World by the Dutch, after breaking bread with the local Indians and offering them some trinkets and beads. New Amsterdam later became a part of what is now New York City. I guess the Indians learned the meaning of eating and "going Dutch." Stop me from laughing too hard!!! To confuse matters more, the people in Holland, in order to show their independence of the German Empire, no longer used the term for themselves or their language (they use "Nederlanders" and "Nederlands"), but continued to apply the term to the people of Germany. This sense was picked up in English, and we still say "Pennsylvania Dutch," who weren't "Dutch," but "Deutsch" from western Germany in the Rhineland area. Hey, even I'm getting confused! Anyway, eventually English speakers settled on "Dutch" for people in Holland/The Netherlands.

German-Having gone through the history of "Dutch/Deutsch," this word should be easier....I hope. The term "Germani" was used by Julius Caesar in his historical writings about a group of related people (tribes) in northwestern Europe. It is assumed that one of those tribes had a similar name for itself, and that Julius just used that "latinized" term for all of these people, but some linguists feel that the term may have come from Celtic, a part of the Indo European language family, and related to Germanic, and thus also to English. Latin speakers back then referred to the Germanic speaking areas collectively as "Germania" (English took this on as "Germany"). In English long ago, the Germans were referred to either as "Almain" or "Dutch." The first is from a Germanic tribe called the "Alemanni," the second, "Dutch," is.....I'm NOT going to get into that again. (Just a note: the Alemanni tribal name gave French their words for Germany and German.) The Germans do NOT use the word "German" for themselves or their language, but rather Deutsch(e) (see above). Further, the Germans do not use a form of the word "Dutch" for the people and language of  the Netherlands, but rather they use "Holländisch" (pronounced "hole-lend-ish), which we English speakers do not use, but of course, we do use "Holland" interchangeably with The Netherlands for the name of the country. German does use the adjective "germanisch" for "Germanic;" that is, relating to all of the Germanic peoples, languages and dialects.

Teuton-This term is not as extensively used as it once was, and I guess I should be glad, because it can also be confusing, because English speakers have frequently used it interchangeably for German or Germanic, but it really means the latter, Germanic. It came from the Teutones, a Germanic tribe from the time before Julius Caesar, but who were called Teutonicus in Old Latin. Linguists feel that it is just another form of "teuta," which meant people (See "Dutch," if you dare, above), from Indo European. In English, it was used to refer to the Germanic languages and the various Germanic tribes; however, just to muddy the waters, from the mid 1800s on, it was also used just for "German." I guess turn about is fair play, as many German speakers mess up the difference between English and British; frequently using British (including the Irish, as the Irish are British, in the sense that they inhabit one of the British Isles) when they mean English, and using English when they mean British. I can attest to this, too. One time years ago in Frankfurt, Germany, I was sitting in the barroom of my favorite restaurant there. The bar had several types of draft beer, including "Guinness Stout" (which is from Ireland, in case you don't know). A German guy at the bar was talking with another German guy seated at a small table near the bar. In Germany, beer glasses almost always have the name of the beer you're being served on the glass, as I believe the various breweries supply them to advertise their products. The guy at the table was drinking Guinness and the other guy asked him what kind of beer it was. He quickly replied, "Englishes Bier." Of course, this means "English beer." I'm sure the Irish would NOT be amused.

Saxon-This comes from Old Germanic "sakhsan," which seems to have meant "someone skilled with a knife or sword, swordsman," as many of the Germanic dialects had a form of the root "sax" to mean a knife, sword or dagger. The belief is that it may ultimately go back to the Indo European root word related to "saw," the cutting instrument. In Old English is was usually spelled "Seaxe." The Saxons were one of the Germanic tribes (and probably the largest contingent) that migrated from NW Europe to Britain in the 400s A.D., and who, along with their other Germanic allies, eventually subdued most of the area now known as England. Many Saxons stayed behind on the Continent, however, and Germany still has two states in existence to this day, called Sachsen-Anhalt and Sachsen, as well as another, "Niedersachsen," or Lower Saxony. Sachsen is translated into English as "Saxony." The Low German dialect of northern Germany is often referred to as "Saxon." The Saxons of England referred to their relatives in northern Germany as "Ealdesaxe;" that is, "Old Saxons." Many English place names bear reference to the Saxons: Sussex, Middlesex, Essex. In many Celtic dialects to this day, a "Saxon" means Englishman. And in Finland, their term for Germany literally means "Land of the Saxons."

Lombards-The Lombards were a Germanic tribe that had a major impact on Italy. They settled in the northern part of Italy, and one of the Italian provinces is named after them, "Lombardia," which English has as "Lombardy." The Old Germanic name of this tribe was "Langgobardoz," which was passed onto Old English as "Langbeardas." Many linguists have taken this to mean "long beards," assuming that they were so named from having extensive facial hair. Other linguists feel that the compound name comes from "lang," which also meant "tall" in times past, but standard English doesn't use it that way anymore (it still has the duel meaning, "long and tall," in German), plus "Bardi," which they assume was the name of a particular Germanic tribe. The idea was that some of these "Bardi" were taller than their contemporaries, and thus the "lang" was added, and it remained as the name for the entire tribe. So, take your pick. When you hear people say about blond Italians in northern Italy, this is because the more commonly dark-haired Latins mixed with various Germanic and Celtic people long ago, and these groups "tended" to have lighter colored hair from what seems to be known of them. Anyway, later in time, a good number of people in the Lombard part of Italy got involved in financial matters, and the term "Lombard" came to mean "bankers, loan dealers and pawnbrokers," besides the original meaning for the particular Germanic tribe or person from the Italian province. This meaning was picked up by French, and from French it was picked up by Low German, Dutch and English, although I dare say in modern times that few English speakers would recognize that meaning. London has a "Lombard Street," which supposedly goes back to the 1500s, because of bankers having set up business there. (From my readings, I can't tell if these bankers may have come to England FROM northern Italy, or whether they were just English bankers, and the "financial" meaning of "Lombard" was applied to them and thus to the street.)

Danes-In history, I guess there have been some GREAT Danes! (And don't HOUND me over that remark, either, dog-gone-it! ) Anyway, many linguists believe there is strong evidence that the term goes back to Old High German "tanar," which meant a "sand bank." (If this theory is correct, there's that "t" and "d" situation again.) Since these North Germanic people tended to live near the sea, where sandy areas are common, that is the notion behind the association with "sand bank." In Old English it was "Dene" (this was plural), but it was used by Englishmen as the term for ALL North Germanic groups, in general. (see "Norse," below) Over time (primarily in the 8th and 9th Centuries), the Danes frequently landed in England, subduing and then even settling in large portions of the eastern and northeastern part of the country. Under influence of their own term for themselves, "Daner," English spelling and pronunciation changed to "Dane." (Unlike the other Germanic languages, the North Germanic languages back then had a tendency to end many words in "r." I don't know why that is, but this word itself is a good example, as English had "Dene," then "Dane," but the Danes had the "r" at the end. Likewise, English had "Viking," German had "Wiking," but North Germanic had "Vikingr.") By the 1700s, the term was being used for a large breed of dog. If you're something of a historian, you might remember the "Danelaw." This term came about in the 9th Century for that part of England under Danish rule. While many Danes had settled in England prior to the Norman Invasion, most remained behind on the North Sea and Baltic Sea coasts, and the area became known as Denmark, which of course has the "e" spelling, while in German it is "Dänemark," Low German "Deenmark, Danish itself has "Danmark," as do Norwegian and Swedish, but Icelandic has "Danmörk."

Norse-This term is derived from "north." An Old English word, "Nordman/Nort(h)man" was used for what we now call "Norwegians." The North Germanic term was "norsk." The Dutch used "Noorsch" for Norwegian. The Old English term "Nordman/Nort(h)man" was borrowed by the French dialect spoken along and near the NW coast, across the Channel from England, as "Normand." When the "Northmen" raided into that area in the 8th Century, the Frankish king gave them the territory to settle in, as a sort of ransom payoff to get them to stop raiding into the Paris area (they were sailing up the rivers from the coast). Thus the area became known as "Normandy" and the people became "Normans." Writer Sir Walter Scott seems to be responsible for the term "Norseman," as he used it in his writings, and I therefore take it that there is no record of its use prior to him.

This has gotten more involved than I intended, so I will have to continue with Part Two about various Germanic groups (including the Vandals, the Burgundians, the Franks, the Goths, the Frisians), hopefully in the not too distant future.

* Mercia was "Mierce" in Old English. The word is related to both modern nouns "mark" and to the now rather archaic "march." The latter means "boundary, border." German has the closely related noun (die) Mark, which also means "border area."