Chemical Warfare 1919-1945

In a recent article about Marshal Pietro Badoglio of Italy, I noted that his overall record had a "blemish" for his use of poison gas in Abyssinia.* This brought a comment from a reader that the use of poison gas is more than a "blemish." First, I think that is a valid criticism, and my choice of words should have been better. Second, in answer to the reader's comment, I said I would do an article about poison gas. So, here it is. This is just some basic information, and it in no way means that I'm trying to excuse Badoglio or any others mentioned below, but it does give context to those times prior to and during World War Two.

Poison gas of various types was used on both sides in World War One. The use was so widespread and accepted, it would be virtually pointless to go into use during the war. After the war, however, there were attempts to outlaw the use of poison gas, but doing so was not an easy task, and lest we forget, the U.S. and certain allies invaded Iraq to find and destroy "weapons of mass destruction," including "poison gas." So the issue is still around all of these decades after the end of World War One.

One Winston Churchill favored the use of poison gas in Iraq in 1920 "against uncivilised tribes," as he called some people in that region.** Historians are divided over whether the British did in fact use poison gas in Iraq in 1920, and I won't debate the issue in this article. During World War Two (July 1944), Churchill, rebuking "morality," proposed using poison gas on German cities, noting those cities could be "drenched," and that, "if we do it (use poison gas), let us do it one hundred percent." The matter was dropped due to fear of retaliation by Germany.

The Spaniards used mustard gas in Spanish Morocco in the mid 1920s against Berber rebels.*** The Japanese used mustard gas and other agents in China in late 1930s. The Nazis and the Allies both feared each other would use chemical warfare, but fear of massive retaliation by the other side kept poison gas from being used, although it was available in quantity to both sides. Both sides had specially trained units for delivery of poison gas (aerial and artillery) as well as units trained in decontamination of sites if poison gas had been used. The United States had been reluctant for decades to sign treaties banning chemical weapons, citing mistrust of other nations (mainly the Soviet Union) and the need to have a deterrent; that is, the ability to retaliate against any nation that used chemical weapons against the U.S. It wasn't until 1997 that a United Nations treaty on chemical weapons was finally ratified by the U.S. Some weapons were destroyed by the U.S. and other nations, but further such actions have been postponed, as the issue of how to safely destroy chemical weapons was debated, and also, the idea of a deterrent has remained an issue.

* The link to the article is: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2012/03/marshal-badoglio-of-italy.html

** The general area of modern Iraq was called Mesopotamia at that time, and it was under British control. An uprising against British rule by some elements of the population took place in 1920.

*** Morocco was then divided between Spain and France as "Spanish Morocco" and "French Morocco." The Berbers are an indigenous people of many parts of North Africa, not just Morocco. They have often, but not always, been nomadic.

WORD HISTORY:
Loss-This word goes back to Indo European "leu" or "lu," which had the notion of "undo, loosen, separate." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "lausam," with the same basic meanings. This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "los," a noun which meant "loss," in the sense "total loss, destruction." Whether this then became modern "loss," which usually has a much less drastic meaning, is unclear. Some believe "los" died out with its place taken in the 1300s by its close relative "lost," the participle form of "lose,"^ and that this then became "loss." It is certainly possible that "los" remained, but that it was not in common use among more educated people, and that, influenced by the toned down meaning of "lost," it became modern "loss," which has relatives in the other Germanic languages, but I will cover them with some of the other related words to come.

^ "Loss" is closely related to a number of other words: "lose," "loose," "lorn" (the second part of 'forlorn'), and the "less" part of words like "homeless," "spotless," etc. These close relatives of "loss" will be covered in the next few articles, and it can all get quite confusing.

Marshal Badoglio of Italy

"Pietro Badoglio"

Note about Italy and World War Two: Italy played a significant part in World War Two in Europe and North Africa. Benito Mussolini was the dictator of Italy, leader of Italian Fascism, and Adolf Hitler's closest ally. The Italian military generally performed poorly during the war, although there were times when Italians units fought as well as those from other nations. Italy entered the war in June of 1940 against Britain and France, but by July of 1943, Mussolini was deposed by his own Fascist Party and then arrested on the orders of King Victor Emmanuel III (Italian: Vittorio Emanuele). The King named Pietro Bodoglio as Prime Minister of Italy and the new government signed an armistice in September 1943. The Italian government then formed some military units to fight on the side of the Allies. Meanwhile, Mussolini was rescued in a daring mission by German commandos, who were glider-landed atop a mountain resort where the former dictator was being held. Mussolini then set up a "new" government in northern Italy, complete with military units to fight along side the Germans, who had occupied Italy. A growing Italian resistance (partisan) movement led efforts behind German lines to defeat the Germans and their Italian fascist allies.* This brought Italy into a virtual state of civil war. The stubborn German defense of Italy was finally broken by the Allies and the German forces in Italy surrendered.

While there were some prominent Italian military commanders during World War Two, I've chosen Pietro Badoglio to represent Italy, mainly because he headed the post-Mussolini government. Just for the record, "some" important Italian military commanders during World War Two: Ugo Cavallero, Alfredo Guzzoni, Giovanni Messe, Italo Gariboldi. For those interested in any of these generals or others not listed, check your local library. Please support your local library!

Pietro Badoglio was born in northwestern Italy. He attended military school and served in the army in Italian colonial wars in East Africa and in Libya.** Badoglio rose to general during World War One, although his role in a major Italian defeat in one battle during the war has been criticized by historians. He then became Army Chief of Staff. he was not especially fond of Mussolini at first, but Mussolini later promoted him to "Marshal" (equivalent to field marshal in other armies) and he was put in charge of the colony of Libya. When the Italian invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in East Africa lagged in the early going in 1936, Mussolini put Badoglio in overall charge of operations there. Almost immediately he had poison gas used on Abyssinian troops. Following the Italian victory, Badoglio was made Governor General of the newly conquered colony, but he quickly returned to his post as Army Chief of Staff.

While skeptical of Italian military fortunes in a major war, he remained on when Mussolini took the country into World War Two. When the poorly planned Italian invasion of Greece went awry, Badoglio resigned his post, although the exact reason for his resignation is unclear. It wasn't until the Allies invaded the large Italian island of Sicily that Badoglio reemerged to play a role in the war. Mussolini was deposed and arrested, and the King Victor Emmanuel III appointed Badoglio as Prime Minister of Italy. The new Badoglio government almost immediately began secret negotiations with the Allies for an armistice. The Italian government had to be careful, as there were many German troops in Italy, and the German weren't stupid. They knew of the possibility of an Italian surrender and they made plans to send in more troops to help secure the country. The armistice was announced as Allied troops were making a second landing in Italy on September 8 (an Allied force had initially landed on September 3), but the Germans successfully disarmed most Italian units over the course of the first few days, although there was some heavy fighting in places in Italy and in Yugoslavia. The government escaped the Germans and then declared war on Germany. Badoglio remained as Prime Minister until June of 1944, when he resigned. He died in 1956 at the age of 85. Marshal Badoglio was an important figure in the Italian surrender, but his use of poison gas against the Abyssinians stands as a blemish on his overall record.

* It was Italian partisans who captured and executed Mussolini and his entourage in late April 1945.

**Italy had Eritrea in East Africa as colony from the late 1800s, and Libya (in North Africa) was occupied and made into a colony by Italy in 1911. In both colonies, not all people accepted the Italians as rulers, and there were rebellious outbreaks that were suppressed by the Italian military.

WORD HISTORY:
Wife-This is another common word of uncertain ancient origin, and I'm not sold on some of the theories, but Old Germanic had "wiban," which meant "woman, female person." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "wif," with the same meaning, but also later in Old English with the notion of "female spouse, wife" being a secondary meaning, which later became the primary meaning, as it is today. "Midwife" retains the original meaning of "woman," in general. Later too, the spelling varied from "wif" to "wyf," before the modern version. Common in the other Germanic languages (except Norwegian), although not necessarily used by all to the same degree: German has "Weib," which is used more in old style language for "woman, wife," as it was replaced by "Frau" as the common modern term. For those learning German, it is a word best avoided, as it has a derogatory tone to it for a woman now, with implication of "babe" or "doll," if you get my drift. Low German has "Wief" (female, woman); Dutch has "wijf" (female, woman); West Frisian has "wiif" (female, woman); Swedish and Danish have "viv" (woman); Icelandic has "víf" (woman). I did not find a modern form in Norwegian, where the term has undoubtedly died out, as one of the words for "woman" in Norwegian is related to English "queen," a word that also once simply meant "woman, lady" in English, before taking on the notion of a woman married to a tribal chieftain or king, and then later a "female ruler in her own right."

Pat Buchanan & MSNBC

Leave it to Randy to defend Pat Buchanan, someone I have little in common with politically. I have to say, I have NOT read his latest book, "Suicide of a Superpower: Will America Survive to 2025?" I have read some reviews of the book. Buchanan was with MSNBC/NBC as a political commentator for about a decade, offering various views, some considered to be rightwing (I concur), on all sorts of political and international events. For the last few years he was more associated with MSNBC's "Morning Joe," an early morning talk/discussion show on the cable channel, where he became a regular.

Just briefly, Buchanan worked for President Richard Nixon and later for President Ronald Reagan. He was on the original "Crossfire" show on CNN in the early 1980s (I watched it regularly), just before he went to work in the Reagan White House. He ran against fellow Republican and incumbent President, George Bush (Sr.) in 1992, and caused the President numerous headaches during the primary campaign, and later at the Republican Convention. He also ran in 1996, emphasizing the loss of American jobs due to poorly negotiated trade deals, a position which seemed to garner him some Democratic votes. He criticized both major political parties on this and other issues, often "social issues," like abortion, gay rights, and immigration policy, and he proudly proclaimed his staunch Catholicism and support of Church dogma. As I recall (and I may need to be corrected on this), polls showed much of Buchanan's support from white men, some even being dubbed "angry white men." When Republican President George W. Bush proposed immigration changes that would have permitted eventual citizenship for illegal immigrants who went through a process taking several years, Buchanan dubbed it "amnesty," and he and his supporters (and others) so battered the proposal, it went nowhere. Highly polarizing, Buchanan has been a red flag to Blacks, Latinos, Jews, gays, and many women, and that doesn't count the many white men who were also turned off by his heated rhetoric.

Last October Buchanan's book was released and MSNBC suspended Buchanan as some of the topics in the book sparked heated retorts from Jews and other minorities, including gays, as Buchanan charged that America is in decline because of minorities, and the decline in percentage of the population of white people of European heritage, as well as the decline of "European Christianity." Interestingly he laments that "Mexico is moving north," but Mexicans are overwhelmingly Catholic, the religion brought there by European Spaniards. Hm, I must have missed something. Anyway, a little over a month ago, MSNBC terminated its relationship with the outspoken Buchanan. "Morning Joe" hosts Joe Scarborough (a former Republcian congressman) and Mika Brzezinski (daughter of foreign policy analyst and author Zbigniew Brzezinski) both offered personal support for Buchanan, while noting the differences they had with many of his opinions, especially those opinions offered up in this book. They countered that a debate of Buchanan's ideas is the best way to expose his fallacies (this is not a quote, but my take on their remarks). I totally agree. I'm not too keen on firing commentators, columnists, etc over their views. I'm not afraid of views contrary to my own, rather I like the debate over such things. Now, some might well argue that Buchanan's views fire up some of like mind, including racists and bigots, but they will always find things to be fired up about, and making him something of a martyr does the same thing, but without input from those with other viewpoints. That is far more dangerous, in my opinion.

WORD HISTORY:
Woman-This word is really a compound, which was then contracted into the modern form. It is an English creation and is thus peculiar to English among the Germanic languages. In Old English (Anglo-Saxon), the common word for a female human was "wif," which is obviously still with us in the modern form "wife" (this will be the next "Word History"). English put together "wif" and "mann" ("man" in the sense of "human being") as "wifmann" for a "female human." Pronunciation variations as the "f" sound died out later made this "wimman" (also spelled "wiman") and "wumman," before the modern version. The process whereby "woman" replaced "wife" for a "female human being" took a few centuries, but since "wife" came to by applied more and more to "a married female, a female spouse," "woman" finally triumphed, as many men already know.

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Marshal Zhukov, Final

"Georgi Zhukov" Part 4/Final

During the summer of 1942, Hitler planned on capturing the the Soviet oilfields of the Caucasus and on taking the city of Stalingrad on the Volga River; thus cutting off the north/south river route for Soviet supplies. What is termed "the Battle of Stalingrad" was really a series of battles beginning with the German advance to the city and their ensuing attempts to capture the city with Stalin's name.* The Soviet defenders barely held on, but the worn out German forces could not fully capture Stalingrad. With Zhukov in overall command of the region, a massive offensive was planned to destroy the southern flank of the German and Axis front, and in November 1942, the Soviets struck, bringing on another chapter to the Stalingrad battle. Rumanian forces (German allies), on either side of the German forces in the city, were shattered by the Soviet attack, and the German 6th Army, along with some Rumanian units, were surrounded. Now began another phase of the battle; the reduction and final surrender of the German forces in Stalingrad, which took place in early February 1943. Interestingly, when the German forces were surrounded in Stalingrad, Zhukov was transferred north to the Leningrad sector to try organize an attack to relieve the besieged metropolis, which was not successful, although the Soviets did manage to get a quantity of supplies through to the city.

Zhukov went south again, this time to plan a defensive battle against an expected large German offensive around the city of Kursk. Large Soviet defensive works created serious problems for the German attack, and with the invasion of Sicily by the Western Allies, Hitler broke off the offensive in the Kursk area, his forces, especially his armored forces, badly depleted. Then came the Soviet counter thrust, and the Germans never really recovered. Zhukov remained in charge of large Soviet forces headed into Poland and then into Germany itself. In mid April 1945 Soviet forces launched the attack intended to end the war, and Zhukov's forces were given the direct route to the German capitol. Stiff German resistance during the initial part of the Soviet attack brought angry remarks from Josef Stalin, but Zhukov's troops finally broke through and headed for Berlin.

Zhukov served as Commander of the Soviet Zone in occupied Germany after the war, but his popularity made him a target of the paranoid Stalin, who had him sent to remote military posts. Stalin's death in 1953 brought Zhukov into public view again. In poor health from the mid 1960s, Zhukov died in 1974 from a stroke.

* The city was called Tsaritsyn in the days of the Russian Empire, but it was renamed during the early Communist era, after Stalin, in the mid 1920s. In the early 1960s the city was once again renamed, as Volgograd, as Communist leaders distanced themselves from Josef Stalin.

WORD HISTORY:
Man-While there is disagreement on the origins of this word, it likely goes back to the Indo European root "man(u)," which meant "human being, 'man,' in the general sense person." This gave Old Germanic "mann(a)," with the same meaning. This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "mann," with the same meaning. Later this became "man." One of the questions about this word is why it took on the meaning "male person" in all of the Germanic languages (English has kept both meanings, "human being," and "male human"). English used "wer" for "male person;" thus "werewolf," "man wolf," but gradually "man" overtook "wer" in this meaning during the 1200s. In the male dominated world of those times, perhaps the general idea of "man," the human being, transferred to the dominate sex, male, but it is interesting that this occurred in all of the Germanic languages, which makes me wonder if this was already a secondary meaning going back in time. The verb form "to man," as in "to supply a group of men to some task," as in "man the walls of the fort," developed from the noun during the same period when "man" was overtaking "wer." Common in various forms in the other Germanic languages: German has "Mann" (male person, also husband) and the derived "Mensch" (person) plus "bemannen" ("to man"); Low German has "Mann" and "Minsch;" West Frisian has "man" and "minske;" Dutch has "man" and "mens;" Icelandic has "karlmaður" and "maður;" Danish has "mand" and "menneske;" Norwegian "mann" and "menneske;" Swedish has "man" and "människa."

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Marshal Zhukov, Part Three

"Georgi Zhukov" Part 3

As Chief of the Soviet General Staff Zhukov faced a daunting task, as German, Rumanian, Hungarian, Finnish, Italian and Slovak forces penetrated deep into Soviet territory, encircling large numbers of Soviet troops and inflicting staggering casualties on the Red Army. Zhukov's problems were complicated by the fact that he not only had to combat the Axis invaders, but he also had to contend with Soviet dictator Josef Stalin, who ordered counterattacks with little knowledge of the actual situation at the front, or with little preparation to give the attacks a chance to succeed. After strenuous arguments, Stalin relieved Zhukov at the end of July 1941, giving him command of a "front."* After some success at slowing the German onslaught in his sector, Zhukov was sent northward to keep Leningrad** from falling to the Germans. Defensive measures were implemented, including minefields, to slow the German advance. Generally small counterattacks sapped the strength of the German and Finnish forces and brought the situation to a stalemate. The Germans had to content themselves with besieging the city until they could bolster their forces for an all out attack, but this opportunity never came.

In the fall of 1941, Zhukov was shifted to the defense of Moscow to halt the German advance bearing down on the capitol. Winter weather and stubborn Soviet resistance brought the German attack to a halt with some German troops actually able to see the spires of the Kremlin off in the distance. A Soviet counteroffensive only a few days later threw the Germans back, but failed to achieve a decisive victory. Still, Moscow had some breathing room and the Germans took up defensive positions. As with Leningrad, the Germans had the idea of renewing the attack when the situation proved more favorable. But also as with Leningrad, the favorable situation never presented itself. The action now shifted to southern Russia and a decisive battle on the Volga River.

Next, the final installment on Marshal Zhukov.

* What the Russians called a "front" was what was termed an "army group" by western Europeans and Americans. An army group or a front was literally a "group of two or more armies serving in the same general area."

** Leningrad was the Soviet-era name for the northern city of Saint Petersburg, which had served as the capitol of Tsarist Russia since the times of Peter the Great, who had had the city built at great cost, including in lives. The Soviets returned the capitol to Moscow. With the fall of the Soviet Union came the renaming of the city as Saint Petersburg, but Moscow remains the capitol.

WORD HISTORY:
Yeoman-First the "yeo" part of this compound; the specifics for the "man" part will be covered in the next article. The ultimate origin of "yeo" is uncertain, but Old Germanic had "gawjan," which seems to have denoted a "piece of land near water; thus land ready for settlement and cultivation." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "gea," which meant "village, region of inhabitants." This then produced "geaman," "a settler, villager," and from this it later took on the meaning "a person who cultivates the land, a farmer." As large landowners became more common, the term was applied to "a common farmer who worked the land on a large estate." This association then led to "a person in the service of a noble." The term is rare in American English, but it is more common in British English, especially because of military units: "Yeoman Cavalry," which were volunteer cavalry used for the defense of England. Later the spelling was "yoman/yeman," depending upon dialect, before the modern spelling. "Yeo" still has some living relatives in other Germanic languages: German has "Gau," an old word for "an administrative region or district, like a county," dating back to Charlemagne (Karl der Grosse, in German), and resurrected by the Nazis for "an administrative district in the Nazi political system, both before and after they took power." It is pretty much confined to use in historical texts now; Dutch has "gouw," "a region or administrative district;" West Frisian was "gea," which means "region."

Cleveland's West Side Market

The "West Side Market" is well known throughout the Greater Cleveland area. June begins a series of events marking the Cen...ah...Cenm...ah...the 100th Anniversary of the market. The Centennial (see, I know the woid) events and information (including a vendor list) about the market is available through its website (link below). I've always loved the West Side Martket, as it offers a wide variety of products not always easily found elsewhere, especially for foods and recipes of ethnic cultures. I'm not afraid of people of different ethnic backgrounds, nationalities, skin color, or religious beliefs, and PLEASE, don't you be afraid of such things either. And don't be afraid to try foods from different cultures, either. I've probably mentioned this little story in an article here before, but some 25+ years ago I was on a train from Wiesbaden to Frankfurt in Germany (then still West Germany). In the seats right across from me sat a middle-aged couple. It turned out they were from Seattle, Washington. They asked me some questions about getting around, and they asked for recommendations about where to eat in Frankfurt. I just don't remember what all I said, but the lady remarked, "I'm afraid I won't like German food and I think we'll just go to McDonald's, I hear they have them here in Germany." I was just astounded! Sometimes I can be too blunt, but the situation called for it, in my opinion, and I said, "So you came six thousand miles to get a hamburger you can get on any street corner in America?" Now it was her turn to be astounded! Why do I get the feeling she was a Republican? Don't be afraid to try things, folks! PLEASE! And don't be afraid of people from other cultures, PLEASE! You'll be missing so much.

http://www.westsidemarket.org/about.html

WORD HISTORY:
West-This word goes back to the Indo European root "wes," which had the notion of "where the sun goes down, evening, in the direction of the setting sun." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "westan," with the same meanings, which then gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "west," as it has remained ever since. Common throughout the other Germanic languages: German "West(en)," Low German "West," Dutch "westen," Frisian "west(en)," Norwegian and Danish "vest," Swedish "väst(er)," and Icelandic "vestur."

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Marshal Zhukov, Part Two

"Georgi Zhukov" Part 2

Zhukov moved up through the ranks and remained an officer in various cavalry units until he was sent to command some Soviet forces in Mongolia in the late 1930s. At that time, Japan occupied Korea and an undeclared war flared between Japan and the Soviet Union. Zhukov launched an offensive operation against the Japanese, in what was something of a Blitzkrieg operation, just a week or so before the German Blitzkrieg against Poland in 1939.* The Soviets defeated the Japanese, who were far more reluctant to cross the border thereafter. Zhukov became an instant hero in the Soviet Union. In 1940, Zhukov took command of Soviet forces along the border with Rumania, where Stalin moved forces into Rumanian territory to claim the area known as Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, which then became part of the Soviet Union.

Zhukov was promoted to Chief of the General Staff and he intensified efforts to prepare for a German invasion.** On June 22, 1941 Hitler launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union, codenamed "Operation Barbarossa."

* Just very briefly, a Blitzkrieg, literally "lightening war," was an offensive which used air power to strike enemy supply, communications, command and staging areas in the rear areas, as well as on the front lines, while fast moving armored vehicles and motorized artillery and motorized infantry were concentrated at key points to break through enemy positions, bypassing strong points, which were then taken on by the slower moving infantry, who consolidated the gains made by the motorized units. The fast moving motorized units disrupted enemy rear areas, spreading confusion and terror among enemy troops. The motorized columns often had the purpose of encircling large concentrations of enemy forces. Zhukov employed similar tactics against the Japanese.

** In August 1939, Hitler and Stalin reached agreement on a "non-aggression" pact, which also contained provisions for a division of Poland between the two dictators, as well as plans for other countries and territories in eastern Europe.

WORD HISTORY:
Snide-This word goes back to Indo European "sneit," which meant "to cut." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "snithanan," with the same meaning. This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "snithan," which then became "snithen," and which retained the "to cut" meaning. This gave English the now obsolete verb "snithe," meaning "to cut," and an adjectival form "snithe" which meant "cutting, sharp." "Snide" developed from these forms, and the meaning once meant "tricky," apparently from the idea of a person "being sharp, cunning." Today it is most commonly heard, at least in American English, in "snide remark(s);" that is "a sharp or cutting remark(s)." English borrowed "cut" which overtook forms of "snide" as the main word for "use of a sharp instrument to make an incision;" thus the little usage of the word. Not so in other Germanic languages (except Norwegian) where forms are quite common and usage much more prevalent: German has "schneiden," Low German has "snieden," Dutch has "snijden," West Frisian has "snije," Icelandic has "sníða" (essentially like "snitha"), Swedish has "snida," and Danish has "snide." All have a meaning "to cut," "to carve," or "to trim." Apparently a verb form has died out in Norwegian, as I could not find it, although I did find "snitt," a noun form, but it seems little used anymore. There are noun forms in other Germanic languages. German, for example, makes fairly extensive use of the base word in various forms: "Schnitt," means "a cut," and in the north of Germany a "Schnitte" means "a slice of something (often bread)," "Schneider" is a "tailor" ("cutter of cloth"), "Schneide" is the "blade of a knife," and "Schnitzel" means "clipping, chip, slice," and is famous as the "slice of meat, pounded thin, breaded and fried, with "Wiener Schnitzel" being specifically veal prepared that way.

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Marshal Zhukov

"Georgi Zhukov" Part 1
("Georgi" also transliterated at times as "Georgy" and "Georgii")*

Notes and Commentary:
First, the Soviet Union took over the former "Russian Empire," which was a multi-ethnic, multi-national empire. Because it was the "Russian Empire," citizens were often called "Russians," regardless of their actual ethnic background.** That terminology continued when the empire became the Soviet Union, and I will continue that terminology here to try to keep things simple, even if not politically correct. Second, while not popular, especially, but not exclusively, with super patriots of the political right in many western countries, we need to remember that the Soviet Union suffered more dead and casualties against Hitler and his allies than all of the western Allies combined. On the other hand, super patriots of the former Soviet Union don't like to hear how western countries helped them stave off defeat early on by supplying them with all sorts of war materials, especially tanks, trucks, etc. I'm just saying we all need to keep some perspective here. Also, I know some of my articles contain extensive footnotes, but I believe it is important to give some explanations about events or ideas. So often books or articles mention something, but the reader may not really know the meaning of that "something." I'm sure I haven't been perfect on this subject either, but I usually do try to give some basic definition to terms used, as well as to express opinions on a particular subject (Hey, it isn't called "Pontificating" for nuthin'...I mean nothing).

Zhukov was born to a poor farming family in the Kaluga area of Russia, southwest of Moscow. The harsh "you're on your own" philosophy of the Tsarist Russian Empire undoubtedly influenced his, and many other poor Russians, beliefs when revolution against Tsardom became likely. He served in the cavalry in World War One, where he further saw the huge differences between the the mainly peasant and worker soldiers and the noble and aristocratic officer corps.*** He was decorated for bravery during the war. He joined the Bolshevik Party after the Bolsheviks came to power by revolution in November 1917.**** He fought as part of the Red Army during the Russian Civil War,***** where he showed leadership qualities and rose to command a cavalry regiment.

*Russian, Ukrainian, Bulgarian, Serbian (all Indo European languages, and therefore related to English further down the "family tree") and several other languages (some Indo European and some from other language families) use a different alphabet system called "Cyrillic." It was a writing (alphabet) system developed back in about the 900s (A.D.) and is named in honor of the Eastern Orthodox saint, Cyril. When someone "transliterates a word," they put it into the closest rendering of another alphabet system, and there are variations of how to do this; thus some spelling differences occur.

** Part of the neighborhood where I grew up had a sizable Ukrainian population, those Ukrainians being from the western part of the Ukraine, where Ukrainian Catholic was the predominant religion, not Eastern Orthodoxy, which dominates in the rest of the Ukraine. Understand, defining the "Ukraine" is not an easy issue, as borders have changed numerous times over the centuries, and even since World War One. When I was a kid, it was a part of the Soviet Union, and was called "the Ukraine," but since the break up of the Soviet Union it has become independent and is simply "Ukraine," without the article. Anyway, if you called one of the Ukrainians in my neighborhood a "Russian," most would quickly, but politely, correct you, but a few might even get downright hostile about it.

***Growing income disparity in America over the last three (plus) decades has been making it less and less possible for Americans to rise (or fall) through the social ranks. "Social mobility," as it is called, has declined markedly in the U.S., and the nation now lags behind many developed countries like Canada, Denmark, Finland, Australia, Spain, Germany, and France (based upon statistics from the "Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development"). As wealthy earners pass on wealth to their descendants, the nation has been losing its reputation as a "meritocracy;" that is, a system where people are rewarded, promoted, and paid according to their achievements, as opposed to aristocracy, where people are rewarded simply because of birth to aristocratic families. The push by American conservatives in the last few years to do away with inheritance taxes on wealthy Americans will only make matters worse, as even some wealthy individuals, like Warren Buffett and Bill Gates, have noted. You would think the "free marketers" would oppose the elimination of inheritance taxes for the nonsense it is, but not so in many cases. If you notice the numerous European countries on the list above (they are not in any particular order, by the way), many American conservatives like to say, "We don't want to be like Europe." I wonder if this is what they mean? Let's be honest here, there is currently an exemption of 5 million dollars from such taxes (Federal, but there are usually state taxes, too). So, Uncle Randy leaves you $10 million. You get $5 million automatically (subject to whatever state law applies to you), and then you pay (currently) 35% Federal Estate Tax on the other $5 million, leaving you $3.25 million (again, subject to any state law pertaining to you). I have a sneaking suspicion you wouldn't turn down a grand total of $8.25 million because you had to pay a tax of $1.75 million. American conservatives say how unfair all of this is. The tax was once much higher, and should be again, but with a hearty exemption.

**** It is often called the "October Revolution" by Russians, as Russia used the Julian Calendar (developed by Julius Caesar; thus "Julian"), as opposed to the Gregorian Calendar (developed by Pope Gregory XIII) of western countries.

***** The Russian Civil War was fought between the Bolshevik Red Army and the White Army, a coalition of pro-monarchist and anti-Bolshevik forces, including foreign elements. The end of the war is a matter of opinion, as it took the Bolsheviks a few years to actually gain control of the country. Some historians say it ended in 1921, while others say 1923. I lean toward the latter.

WORD HISTORY:
Kremlin-The ultimate origins of this word are uncertain. It goes back to Old East Slavic "kreml" ("кремль") which had the notion of "separate; thus a fortress part of a city or town." This gave Old Russian "kremlinu" which later became "kremlin." English seems to have borrowed the word in the 1600s from either German or French. German had borrowed it initially from Russian as "Kremelin/Kremelien." While used for the citadel/fortress of any Russian city or town, the use of the term for the central part of Moscow dominated even a few hundred years ago, as it still does.

The Struggles of Mitt Romney

Mitt Romney is in the lead in delegates, at present, for the Republican nomination for President of the United States, but he has struggled, and he continues to struggle. In the end, he may well get the nomination, but then again, he could lose, as the hardcore conservative base of the GOP seems determined to keep him from leading the Republican ticket. These are the "true believers," folks, not that every opponent of Romney belongs to that crowd, but these people want to take the country back to some distant century, but I'll be damned of I can figure out just which century that is. I'm certain if they had lived in the 1920s they would have basked in the limited government of the "Roaring Twenties," but they would not have taken responsibility for the economic collapse of the early 1930s. They undoubtedly would have stomped about and pouted over the New Deal and they would have called Franklin Roosevelt any number of names, with "socialist" being the kindest and least likely to be censored. I say this, because that's what they've done in recent times. Since Ronald Reagan they have loved deregulation of anything and everything, and they have been in absolute love with tax cuts, especially for the wealthiest segment of the American population. When the system they built came crashing down, they denied virtually any responsibility, and they stomped and pouted over bailouts of banks and auto companies, and they called President Obama any number of names, with "socialist" being the kindest and least likely to be censored (Hm, this passage sounds familiar). They blamed Obama for the bailouts they hated, conveniently forgetting the bailouts were started under the administration of George W. Bush.

Now they want Obama's head, and they're willing to pay lots of money to get it, but they want a "true believer" to handle the ax, not a guy from Michigan, or is it New Hampshire, or is it Massachusetts? Where the hell is this guy from, anyway? At times he reminds me of the Howells in "Gilligan's Island," where in one episode they bring out a suitcase full of keys to all of their homes. Success is one thing, excess is another, and we'll have to see which tag truly fits Mr. Romney, but that's for another day. The "true believers" don't believe Romney, and if I were a "true believer," I suppose I wouldn't either. He's changed numerous positions on issues, not the least of which is on health care. In case you're not a "true believer," Obama's health care reform is like a red flag to a bull to the "true believers." Ole! Romney was governor in Massachusetts and signed into law (near) universal health care coverage, complete with mandates; the first of any state in the nation. He has now twisted and turned so many times over the law, if you sprinkled salt on him, he'd be a pretzel. Instead of owning up to the law and making the case that it was the right thing to do, any flaws notwithstanding, the former governor says if he's elected, he'll act to repeal Obama's reforms. Do as I say, not as I did.

Allied Commanders of World War Two/MacArthur, Final

"Douglas MacArthur" Part 5/Final

One of MacArthur's controversial actions while ruling Japan was his announcement that Emperor Hirohito and his family would not be tried for any war crimes. Further, the general did not require the emperor to step down and Hirohito remained as the constitutional monarch of Japan until early 1989, when he died at the age of 87.

In mid 1950, Communist North Korea invaded South Korea.* Through the United Nations, the American military named MacArthur to lead all United Nations forces to oppose the North Koreans. At first the UN forces (heavily American and South Korean) fell back as the North Koreans pushed forward, but within about six weeks, the situation had stabilized, although with North Korean forces deep inside South Korea (they captured the capitol Seoul). MacArthur launched a bold surprise landing behind North Korean lines, and the enemy forces fled northward for the border. As UN forces approached the border, President Truman gave the go ahead to cross into North Korea. The fear was that China, or perhaps even the Soviet Union, would come to the aid of North Korea, but MacArthur and his advisers thought otherwise, and the general assured Truman of such.** Little did MacArthur know that substantial Chinese forces were infiltrating across the Chinese/North Korean border by night. A major Chinese offensive was launched, and all hell broke loose as the UN forces fell back and MacArthur, who had recently painted a highly optimistic picture of the war nearly being over to President Truman, was now on the hot seat. Once again the situation stabilized and MacArthur launched an attack of his own, which succeeded in recapturing Seoul. President Truman wanted the war to be limited and some negotiated peace settlement to be concluded. MacArthur wanted the Chinese to admit defeat, no matter what it took to do so. This contradicted the President's policy.

The issue of MacArthur and Truman is highly controversial,*** with strong proponents for each side. The President's view was that he was trying to avoid another world war, when the world had not yet recovered from the previous one. And of course matters were complicated by the availability of nuclear weapons. There were other hot spots in the world, like the developing situation in Vietnam, which would later lead to American involvement there, and of course, the situation in Europe, with Communist-dominated eastern Europe versus the central and western European nations, along with the United States. MacArthur, ever the military strategist, saw a military threat and wanted to crush it, even at the risk of a larger war. Republicans in Congress let it be known that MacArthur was dissatisfied with Truman's policy, and they liked to quote from MacArthur's letter on the Korean situation, "There can be no substitute for victory."****

Truman issued an order that military personnel were to have all public statements about policy "cleared" before they were issued, but MacArthur issued a public offer for a ceasefire. Truman was furious and this ultimately led to his relieving General MacArthur of his command. Back in the United States, a firestorm erupted as some Republicans wanted Truman impeached and removed form office. Some Republicans even believed Truman relieved MacArthur under pressure from "socialists" in foreign governments, especially Britain. MacArthur returned to the United States to a hero's welcome. He spoke to a joint session of Congress where he not only repeated his "no substitute for victory" line, but uttered another line destined for the history books, "Old soldiers never die, they just fade away." MacArthur retired to the Waldorf-Astoria in New York. He died in 1964 at the age of 84. I remember his death and the public funeral thereafter, as it was carried television.

Note: I used the following book for some information for this series on General MacArthur:
"American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur, 1880-1964," by William Manchester, published by Little, Brown and Company, Boston, 1978.

* Korea had been controlled by Japan since the early 1900s. With the defeat of Japan in World War Two, the United States and the Soviet Union divided occupation of the country until free elections could be held. The Soviets did not adhere to the agreement and instead established a Communist government in the Soviet-controlled part, while a "western" oriented government was established in the American-controlled part. Both parts supported the notion that there was only one Korea, but each claimed to be the legitimate government of the whole.

** The Soviet Union supplied weapons to all Communist countries in those times. The presence of Chinese troops in North Korea came to be known, but intelligence estimates put the number FAR below the actual number. One of the issues between Truman and MacArthur developed from the general's assurance to the President that China would not substantially intervene in Korea, and that the war was nearly over (this was in October 1950). He even told Truman that many troops would soon be headed for Japan, and that some would even be available for use in Europe, then another hot spot.

*** This is very brief and the actual matters and actions were far more involved. There are many good sources for those interested in more detailed information. Please check your local library.

**** MacArthur had sent a letter to Republican congressional leaders with this now famous saying in it.

WORD HISTORY:
Hero/Heroine-These words have an unclear ancient history, although many etymologists seem to believe "hero" goes back to the Indo European root "ser," which meant "protect;" thus, if correct, a "hero" was literally "a protector." To be quite honest, I'm not totally sold. Greek had "heros" (this is the singular form, although the "s" makes it appear as a plural to English speakers), which meant a "semi divine man/warrior." Latin borrowed the word from Greek as "heros," and English then borrowed it from Latin circa 1390, although it wasn't until the mid 1600s that it took on the modern meaning of "a man who displays extraordinary courage and daring." "Heroine," comes from the feminine form of Greek "heros," which was "heroine," which was borrowed into Latin and then into English in the mid 1600s.
Note: "Hero" overtook the original English word for such, "haeleth," which came from Old Germanic "halithaz," and which also gave Old High German and Old Saxon "helid" (now modern "Held"), Old Dutch "helit" (modern "held"), Old Frisian "heleth" (modern "held"), and is the source of modern Norwegian and Danish "helt" and of Swedish "hjälte." Icelandic has "hetja," presumably from the same source, but without the "l' sound. So, if English hadn't borrowed "hero," we likely would say something very much like "held/helt."

Allied Commanders of World War Two/MacArthur, Part Four

"Douglas MacArthur" Part 4

MacArthur was determined to return to the Philippines and to free the multi-island nation from Japanese occupation. In the fall of 1944, the point chosen for the initial assault was the island of Leyte, which lies more to the eastern part of the Philippines. After heavy fighting and stubborn Japanese resistance, much of the island was subdued, but fighting continued there well into 1945.* MacArthur was promoted to "General of the Army" (5 Star General) in mid December 1944 (made his permanent rank in 1946). The bloody campaign in the Philippines continued for months, but eventually the area was essentially secured.** MacArthur and the Allied command planned an invasion of Japan, but the war ended before such a costly operation had to be undertaken. MacArthur received the formal surrender by the Japanese on September 2, 1945 aboard the U.S.S. Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

For three years after the war ended, General MacArthur, Supreme Allied Commander in Japan, effectively became the head of the Japanese government. A new constitution was put in place which limited Japanese military matters and very much limited the power of the Emperor of Japan. MacArthur instituted various reforms, including the encouragement of Japanese workers to join unions, and the sale of land to former tenant farmers (Oh boy! Today's Republican leaders would call him all sorts of nasty names, with "socialist" undoubtedly being the kindest). Under MacArthur's guidance, Japan was well on the way to becoming a democratic nation. In 1949, MacArthur gave over his power to the Japanese government.

Next, the final installment on General MacArthur.

* The Philippines had a lot of jungle and rough terrain (besides a multitude of islands), areas perfect for concealment and ambush. This terrain worked for the Filipino resistance movement early on, and then for the Japanese defenders against American forces. A decent movie depicting the terrain is 1950's "American Guerrilla in the Philippines," which starred Tyrone Power. It is "based" upon a true story of an American PT boat crew stranded in the Philippines during the Japanese occupation and how they hid out and helped the Filipino resistance. It is well worth seeing.

** Throughout the war in the Pacific groups of Japanese military personnel were often bypassed by Allied mopping up operations, including in the Philippines. Sometimes months or even years after the war ended, Japanese soldiers were discovered in hiding. They were out of radio communication with their homeland and they did not know the war had ended, or their military honor dictated that they had not received orders to lay down their arms. An episode of "Gilligan's Island" in the mid 1960s played on this theme when the castaways are captured by a Japanese sailor (with a mini-submarine). In real life, some Japanese soldiers only gave up in the 1960s and 1970s, after some twenty to thirty years in hiding!

WORD HISTORY:
Pine (2)-This is the verb with the meaning "to long for painfully, to grieve for." It is not related to the noun meaning "a type of evergreen tree,"^ but it is very closely related to the word "pain." This word apparently goes back to Indo European "kwei/kwoi," which had the idea of "pay, compensate." This gave its Greek offspring "poine," which meant "penalty, fine." This then gave Latin "poena," which meant "penalty, punishment," which later became "pena." This was then borrowed into Old Germanic, which gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "pinian," which meant "to cause pain or suffering, to torture." This later became "pinen," before the modern version. German has "Pein," which means "pain," as does Low German Saxon "Pien," Dutch "pijn," and Frisian "pine;" Danish and Norwegian have "pine," which means "torment," as does Swedish "pina." Apparently usage in Icelandic has died out, as I could not find a form of the word.

^ For the history of the noun, see: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2012/03/allied-commanders-of-world-war_11.html

Allied Commanders of World War Two/MacArthur, Part Three

"Douglas MacArthur" Part 3

Japanese air attacks on the Philippines were followed by troop landings and the American-Filipino forces retreated to Bataan,* where stubborn resistance to the Japanese invasion continued. The situation had become hopeless, as no relief of the besieged forces was possible at that time. MacArthur was ordered by President Roosevelt to leave the Philippines for Australia to develop a strategy to combat the Japanese Pacific assault. In March 1942, MacArthur, his wife and young son, and a number of aides and staff personnel escaped by PT boats to an airbase in the southern Philippines. From there they were flown to Australia. Upon arrival in Australia MacArthur told an audience, "I came out of Bataan, and I shall return." The "I shall return" part became an American slogan used throughout the war. The American and Filipino forces surrendered by May 1942, but MacArthur was awarded the Medal of Honor for the stubborn defense against the Japanese army.**

In Australia MacArthur was named Supreme Allied Commander for the Southwest Pacific. His command consisted mainly of American and Australian troops, with increasingly powerful American air and naval units. A little over a month after the final surrender of the Philippines, American naval forces inflicted a devastating defeat on the Japanese navy at the "Battle of Midway." An American landing on the island of Guadalcanal in August 1942 eventually brought a victory there by early 1943. The war was turning in favor of the Allies. Other victories followed, and sights were set on fulfillment of the "I shall return" pledge.

* Bataan is a peninsula on the western side of Luzon, the largest island in the Philippines. A quantity of supplies had been stored on Bataan. Manila, the capitol of the Philippines, is located on the island of Luzon.

** Just a little note here: when I was younger, World War Two was a very popular subject, as the war hadn't been over all that long, and many veterans were still alive. MacArthur remained highly controversial among some of those veterans, with some feeling he "ran away" from the Philippines to save himself, leaving his men to their fate. My father had served in the Pacific during the war and he liked MacArthur, so I grew up with a healthy respect for the general. I was stunned to hear some of the charges leveled at MacArthur. As more and more information was released on World War Two, I felt satisfied that the charge of MacArthur running away was unjustified. He had been ordered by the President to leave the Philippines.

WORD HISTORY:
Spruce-The noun form is a shortening of "Spruce fir tree." This seems to have come into English in the 1300s from French "Pruce," which meant "Prussia." No one has been able to put forth a credible reason why the "s" was added to the beginning in English. The French term went back to Latin "Prussia." (See note below) It seems trade goods from the German Hanseatic League were often referred to as being from "Prussia," and the particular fir tree was thought to be Prussian; thus the term was applied to the tree, with some even calling it "Prussian fir." The verb form came about in the 1500s and it has the same origin, although it seems to have come from Prussian leather, a common trade item centuries ago, and then dubbed "Spruce leather." The leather was then often used to make a fine, trim looking jacket-like garment. The notion of "fine, trim garment" came to be applied to other items that were perfected, or "spruced up." NOTE: Prussia was named after a particular tribe, the Prussians, who were closely related to the Lithuanians and the Latvians. As Germans spread eastward, they conquered the area and then settled there, with the Prussians mixing in with the new German settlers. The region continued to be called "Prussia," and the inhabitants "Prussians," even though the area became "Germanized," and the Prussian language died out. The terms "Prussia" and "Prussians" came to be associated with the German settlements there. Since the end of World War Two, the German region of Prussia has ceased to exist, with much of the former province becoming a part of Poland, and a smaller section a part of the Soviet Union (now Russia).

Allied Commanders of World War Two/MacArthur, Part Two

"Douglas MacArthur" Part 2

MacArthur was Superintendent of West Point for three years and he brought change to the tradition-bound institution, something that was not popular with all involved. For decades the course of military study centered around the Civil War. MacArthur ordered the just recently fought World War* to be the main course of study. He also emphasized sports as an important part of the curriculum.

In the fall of 1922, MacArthur was sent to the Philippines where he made many friends among the Filipino people, something that did not sit well with some bigots and self anointed super American patriots who saw the Filipinos as purely colonials.** By the mid 1920s he was back in America, serving in various positions until he returned briefly to the Philippines and then was named Chief of Staff of the Army in late 1930. During the Great Depression, it was MacArthur who was given orders by then President Herbert Hoover to disperse "Bonus March" protesters who were camped out in Washington, D.C.*** The use of the Army, including tanks, became a political hot potato, and MacArthur's role in the spectacle that played out in newsreels across the country has been challenged by some on the political right, but the general chose to be there, and he was Chief of Staff of the Army. All the facts will never be truly known. MacArthur and the Army operated the Civilian Conservation Corps, a New Deal program, during the Great Depression. In the fall of 1935 MacArthur was asked to help form the Philippine army in preparation for independence. He was given the title "Field Marshal of the Philippines," and he was accompanied by his aide, Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Gradually MacArthur and Philippine leaders, helped by aid from the U.S., began the formation of a new Philippine military. MacArthur retired from active duty with the U.S. Army, but remained in the Philippines. As America drew closer to military involvement in World War Two, President Roosevelt recalled MacArthur to the army, giving him command of U.S. Forces in the Far East, and the U.S. took control of the Philippine forces (it was still a possession of the United States). On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.

* Since at that time there had only been one world war, the term "World War" or "the Great War" were commonly used.

** The Philippines, a series of islands, were under Spanish rule from the 1500s until the treaty between the United States and Spain ended the Spanish-American War in late 1898 (the treaty was not ratified until the spring of 1899). The Philippines then remained an American possession (colony) until the mid 1930s, when the islands were granted commonwealth status in preparation for independence. As a "commonwealth," the Philippines had their own government, but were under U.S. jurisdiction in foreign policy and military matters. World War Two and the Japanese invasion brought the move to independence to a halt, but after the war the nation was given its independence from the U.S. in 1946.

*** For information on the "Bonus March" and the use of the U.S. Army, see my article: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2012/05/great-depression-part-nine.html

WORD HISTORY:
Pine-This is the "pine" of "pine tree, pine cone, pineapple." It is likely this word goes back to the Indo European root "pei," which meant "sap or resin for trees and plants, and fat regarding flesh." This gave its Latin offspring "pinus," which meant "pine tree, or the wood derived from such a tree." Old English borrowed the word as "pin," with a long "i" sound, and it was used in the English compound "pintreow," which meant "pine tree." "Pin" was later reinforced by French "pin," which had the same meaning. French is a Latin-based language.

Allied Commanders of World War Two/MacArthur, Part One

"Douglas MacArthur" Part 1

While I have spent decades studying about World War Two in Europe (including North Africa), I must admit I have not given nearly as much time to the war in Asia and the Pacific, although my father served in the U.S. Army in the Pacific Theatre. Why this happened, I don't really know, although as a kid some of the neighbors' fathers had brought back souvenirs from Germany, like Nazi armbands, daggers, a German pistol and one even had a German helmet.* Then too, there were lots of documentaries about the war, seemingly always tilted more towards the European war than towards the Pacific war. Anyway, General MacArthur is such a towering figure in World War Two and in American military history, I feel I must cover him in this series. There are many books and articles about General MacArthur, but I consulted the following for some information for this five part series: "American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur 1880-1964," by William Manchester, published by Little, Brown and Company, Boston, 1978.

Douglas MacArthur was born in Arkansas, the son of a military officer, and the grandson of a Scottish immigrant. He learned much about the military from his father during his childhood and he later attended West Point Military Academy, where he graduated first in his class. His unit was sent to the Philippines, thus beginning MacArthur's long connection with that country. Not long thereafter, MacArthur served as an aide to his own father, who was a high ranking general by then. His father's position gave the young MacArthur the opportunity to visit many parts of Asia and the Pacific, an almost prelude to the role he would later serve in World War Two. Prior to World War One, MacArthur served with American forces in Mexico during that nation's revolution. When war was declared on Germany in April 1917, MacArthur was made chief of staff of the 42nd Division, which was deployed to France. During the war MacArthur was decorated numerous times and was cited for bravery on a number of other occasions. MacArthur was promoted to brigadier general in command of one of the division's brigades in 1918. After the war, he spent time with American forces on occupation duty in Germany, but returned to the United States in 1919. His brigadier general rank was kept** and MacArthur was made superintendent of West Point.

* The odd shape of the helmets was fascinating to us kids, although little did we know the U.S. military would eventually adopt a similar style, which is in use today. As kids, we did not comprehend the evil symbolized by some of the souvenirs brought back from Europe.

** During wartime officers often are promoted "temporarily" to higher ranks, as officers at all levels are in demand. After a war, it is customary for many of those so promoted to revert to their previous rank, but in this case, MacArthur retained his brigadier general rank of wartime.

WORD HISTORY:
Fir-This word for a pine tree goes back to Indo European "perkwu," which meant "oak." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "furhjon," which took the variant meaning "pine, fir." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "furh," which was used in the compound "furhwudu;" that is, "pine wood." Old Norse, a North Germanic language, brought the related word "fyri" to parts of England, with the same meaning. Likely this reinforced the original English word, giving English "firre" by the 1300s, and later "fir" in the modern version. German has "Föhre," Low German Saxon has "Fuhr," Danish has "fyr," Icelandic and Swedish have "fura," Norwegian has "furu." I could not find versions in modern Frisian or Dutch.

Allied Commanders of World War Two/LeClerc

"General Jacques LeClerc"

NOTE: For those unfamiliar with World War Two, French involvement in the war is a bit complex. In September 1939 France, along with Britain, declared war on Germany in response to Hitler's invasion of Poland two days prior. France surrendered to Germany in June 1940 after a successful German offensive and campaign in the spring of 1940. Germany occupied much of northern France, including Paris, as well as the Atlantic coastal areas. The remainder of France, termed "Vichy France," since the government was in the city of Vichy, was French-governed, but was "cooperative" with the Axis. France also kept her colonies and the military units in those colonies, and retained, as well, a limited military force within the French-governed part of France. The colonial military units played varying roles in the war. The French surrender in 1940 also brought about the establishment of what came to be called the "Free French," led by Charles DeGaulle.* These forces were formed from Frenchmen who had escaped from France to Britain in 1940, and also from those who lived outside of France, largely from the colonies. The aim of the "Free French" was to give France a military presence on the side of the Allies (as opposed to the pro-Axis French government), and to free France from German occupation. Free French military forces played an increasing role as the war progressed, and I have chosen General LeClerc to represent France in this segment on Allied commanders.

The man who came to be known as "General LeClerc" was born in northern France as Philippe François Marie de Hauteclocque (Hey, say that three times real fast. Ah, in fact, say that one time real fast.). He became a cavalry officer and served in French Morocco for a time. When World War Two broke out, he was a captain in a division that moved into Belgium to meet the German attack. He was wounded and taken to a hospital, but left and made his way to Spain and Portugal upon the French surrender. He then joined the call by Charles DeGaulle to join the Free French in England. At this time he chose an alias in the hopes of protecting his family in France from reprisals by the pro-Axis Vichy government, and it is by that name that he is best known: "Jacques Philippe LeClerc." DeGaulle dispatched LeClerc and a small group of Free French to the African colony of Chad to bring this colony into the Free French cause, which was successful. From Chad, Leclerc's group raided into the Italian colony of Libya, just to the north.** LeClerc used Chad as a base of operations and training area for his small, but expanding, force.

By December 1942, with Rommel's German-Italian forces in retreat after their defeat at the Battle of El Alamein, LeClerc's small force of about a reinforced regiment crossed into southern Libya, defeated the Italian garrison and marched northwards towards Tripoli, meeting up with British and Commonwealth forces there in late January 1943. Incorporating Free French forces already present with the British forces with his own, LeClerc's men fought against the Axis forces until their surrender in Tunisia in May 1943. He then went to Morocco to establish and train the French 2nd Armored Division (French: "2eme Division Blindee"). The division served under General Patton's 3rd Army in Normandy from August 1944 and fought its way to Paris, where LeClerc accepted the surrender of the city by the German commander, General Dietrich von Choltitz. The division helped pursue the German forces into the long disputed territory of Alsace,*** and the division ended the war near Hitler's mountain home in Bavaria near Berchtesgaden.

LeClerc was later sent to Indochina to take command of the French forces there opposing the Japanese, but the Japanese surrendered before any major operations were carried out by LeClerc's forces. The general was the French representative at the formal Japanese surrender. General LeClerc was killed in an airplane crash in Algeria in 1947. He was made a "Marshal of France" posthumously in 1952.

* For some biographical info about DeGaulle, see my article: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2011/11/allied-leaders-of-world-war-iide-gaulle.html

**Chad, now an independent nation, is both French and Arabic speaking. LeClerc's Free French unit raided into Libya, as the Free French position was that the French surrender in June 1940 was not valid, and that the war continued; in this case, against Italy.

*** Alsace has been traded back and forth between Germany and France several times, just within the last one hundred years.

WORD HISTORY:
Cork-Certain aspects of the history of this word are a bit sketchy, but it seems to go back to Indo European "perkwu," which meant "oak." This gave Latin "quercus," with the same meaning. Arabic dialect was taken to Spain by the Moors, who conquered a large part of Spain, and a form of the word was taken up in this Arabic dialect as "al-qurq." Spanish took the Arabic form as "alcorque," for the "cork used in soles for shoes." German ("Kork"), Low German ("korck"), or Dutch ("kurk") borrowed the word from Spanish, likely through trade contact. English then borrowed the word from one of those sources as "kork" in the early 1200s. The verb form was derived from the noun in the1500s. By the way, German differentiates between "Kork," which means "the bark material used in various products," and "Korken," which means "a bottle-stopper made from the material."

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Wavell & Alexander

"Archibald Wavell"
Wavell was born in southeastern England (Essex*) and attended Sandhurst Royal Military Academy in southern England. Wavell fought in the 2nd Boer War (1899-1902) in southern Africa,** and he then served in India before involvement in World War I, where he was wounded and lost an eye. Postwar he was sent to Palestine and put in charge of British Middle East Forces against the Italian invasion of Egypt in 1940. A highly successful British counteroffensive against Mussolini's army destroyed much of the Italian force in Egypt and eastern Libya, but Wavell had to shift some Commonwealth forces and supplies to help Greece against an Italian invasion, launched by Mussolini in the fall of 1940. Hitler, alarmed by the Italian collapse in North Africa, sent General Erwin Rommel with German tanks and troops to stave off the loss of North Africa. Rommel, not content to just hold the line, launched his own offensive against the tired and depleted Commonwealth forces, driving them back in a stunning reversal. Not only did Wavell have to combat German and Italian forces in North Africa, but he was also forced to deal with military events in the Middle East, far to the rear of his front line command. He was forced to put down an attempted pro-Axis takeover of Iraq and then to fight Vichy French forces in Syria and Lebanon. All the distractions only helped Rommel. Churchill chose to relieve Wavell of his Middle East post in mid 1941 and the general was then sent to India. India was not a safe haven, as it wasn't long before the Japanese launched major operations throughout southern areas of Asia and the Pacific, including the attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor. British and Commonwealth forces were woefully inadequate to defend the area, and Japanese forces advanced through southeast Asia and captured the fortress of Singapore. Wavell's forces withdrew to India, but launched a counteroffensive, and although it achieved initial success, it eventually had to be broken off. By mid 1943, Churchill replaced Wavell as commander, but kept him on as Viceroy of India. This was an important position, as India, which included modern Pakistan and Bangladesh in those times, was moving towards independence from Britain. When the war ended, religious violence between Hindus and Muslims had parts of India in flames, and Wavell was replaced by Lord Mountbatten. Wavell returned to England where he died in May 1950.

"Harold Alexander"
Alexander was born into a noble family in London and he attended Sandhurst Royal Military Academy in southern England. Alexander was twice wounded in World War I, and he was given high marks by his superiors. The future field marshal served as a divisional commander in France in 1940 and evacuated with his unit from Dunkirk after the German breakthrough. He was sent to India to help organize defensive measures against the Japanese. Alexander was appointed British Commander-in-Chief Middle East in August 1942, making him newly appointed British 8th Army commander Bernhard Montgomery's superior. In 1943 Alexander became Army Group Commander for North Africa, reporting to General Eisenhower; and then with the same basic set-up for operations in Sicily and Italy. Made Commander-in-Chief Mediterranean and promoted to field marshal in 1944. More composed and far less dramatic then either Montgomery or General Patton, both of whom served under his commands, Alexander was well liked by those who served with him, although Montgomery had a far less favorable opinion of him. After the war he became Governor-General of Canada for the King, and then he became Minister of Defence*** in Churchill's government in the 1950s. Field Marshal Alexander died 1969.

* The County of Essex derives from Old English "East Seaxe" (also written as one word), which means, "East Saxons." The Saxons were one of the major Germanic tribes, from what is now modern northern Germany, who settled in Briton and helped found England. Their Germanic dialect was an essential part of the making of the English language.

** The Boer Wars were fought between the British and Dutch settlers in southern Africa. The Dutch dialects spoken in southern Africa dating back a couple of hundred years developed into what is now classified as a separate language, "Afrikaans." It is naturally very similar to Dutch, and it has many similarities to its other Germanic relatives, especially Frisian, German and English.



*** The American English spelling is "defense."
WORD HISTORY:
Many-This common word goes back to Indo European "monogho," with the notion of "much, many, often." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "managaz," which in turn gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "manig/monig," depending upon dialect. The ending "ig" sound eventually modified to "y." The pronunciation of the base also changed (during the 1200s) as if spelled "meny," although in the related compound "manifold," the original pronunciation remains intact. Common in the other Germanic languages, although I could not find a modern form in Icelandic: German has "manch" and "mannig" (the latter used in compounds, it means "many/multi"); Low German has "männig" and "mannig;" West Frisian has "mannich;" Dutch has "menig;" Norwegian has "mang(e);" Swedish has "mången" and "många;" Danish has "mange."

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Patton, Part Three/Final

"George S. Patton" Part 3

With the defeat of the German offensive known as "the Battle of the Bulge," Patton's army pressed into Germany and crossed the Rhine River. In mid April 1945, Patton was promoted to four-star general, although just a couple of weeks before, he had gotten into more trouble by sending a force of some 300 men behind German lines to liberate a POW camp where his son-in-law was a prisoner. The operation failed and almost the entire force was lost. The 3rd Army advanced through Bavaria and into (German held) Czechoslovakia as the war ended.

As the postwar military governor of the German state of Bavaria, Patton got into more trouble, as his dislike of the Soviets prompted him to express views and to take actions that were highly controversial. He kept former Nazis in office to help govern the region, compared Nazis to American political parties, referred to Russians in Nazi-like terms, like "Asiatic" and "Mongolian,"* and espoused using the German army in conjunction with the Western Allies against the Soviets. While tensions with the Soviets mounted, Patton's strident opinions did not sit well with many Americans or western Europeans who had had enough of war, and just wanted to recover from World War Two. Eisenhower relieved Patton of his command, although the general prepared to help write the history of the U.S. Army in the war.

In December 1945 General Patton was injured in what appeared to be a relatively minor auto accident (others involved were uninjured), but he was paralysed by a spinal injury. He died a couple of weeks later from a blood clot in his lung. He is buried with 3rd Army troops in Luxembourg.**

* The Soviet Union actually inherited the former multi-ethnic Russian Empire of the Tsar, and as such, a large area of the country lay in Asia. The term "Russian" had become standard for Soviet citizens by many people around the world, although many were not really Russian at all. Nazi propaganda had played up the "Asian" part of the Soviet population to scare Germans and western Europeans into fighting against the Soviets (remember, historically Asian tribes like the Mongols and Huns had pushed into many parts of Europe in prior centuries), although there is no question that Nazi racial and ethnic ideas had long preached this Asian connection. There is also no question that Russians had been influenced by Asians (even mode of dress) prior to Tsar Peter the Great, who forcibly changed Russians to more western European ways.

** For my article on the movie, "Patton," see: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2011/09/patton-just-great-movie.html

WORD HISTORY:
Hand-This word "may" go back to an Indo European base "khend/khent," which had the notion of "seizing, grasping," but it only developed its meaning of "body part" in Germanic, as forms of the word are not found outside of the Germanic languages, except in borrowings. Old Germanic had "khanduz," which meant "hand." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "hand/hond," depending upon dialect, which later just became "hand." Common in the other Germanic languages: German has "Hand" (all German nouns are capitalized), Low German Saxon has "Hann," Dutch, West Frisian, Swedish, and Norwegian all have "hand," although Norwegian also has the variation, " hånd" (depending upon dialect), Danish has "hånd," and Icelandic has "hönd."

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Patton, Part Two

"George S. Patton" Part 2

The Germans were fascinated by Patton, as his military tactics and his disciplinary measures were similar to their own. Eisenhower and the Allies used this German fixation with Patton to their advantage, and they used every opportunity to keep the Germans believing that Patton would lead the next major Allied operation. Patton remained in the Mediterranean area for quite some time, and German military intelligence believed this pointed to a possible invasion of Greece. Later Patton went to England, where stories were leaked that he would be in charge of the invasion of France, and that the invasion would be directly across the English Channel to the area around Calais. The German forces were, therefore, bolstered in the Calais region, and even when Allied troops landed further down the coast in Normandy, many German military leaders were convinced it was only a diversionary attack and that Patton would still lead the main landing around Calais. This "fascination" with Patton kept a substantial German force (the 15th Army) awaiting an invasion that had already taken place.*

Patton was given command of the U.S. Third Army to concentrate on a breakout from the Normandy area. While the Allied landings were a success, the Germans and their use of the Normandy terrain proved a tough nut to crack. Patton's hard charging forces broke through the dwindling German lines and then turned to help trap a significant German force around the French town of Falais. The breakthrough brought a headlong retreat by the Germans. The Allied advance was so rapid, supply problems became about as big an issue as the Germans. With his fuel reserves low, Patton met with increasing German defensive resistance in Lorraine, the long-contested province along part of the German-French border.** With his forces unable to breakthrough the German lines, Patton's army was forced to slug it out with well led German units as winter approached.

Just when it looked as though the Germans would be defeated sooner rather than later, Hitler launched a massive surprise offensive north of Patton's 3rd Army in Belgium in mid December 1944. An initial German breakthrough brought heavy American casualties, and Eisenhower needed Patton to help stabilize the situation and to help relieve besieged U.S. forces in the Belgian town of Bastogne. Patton had anticipated Eisenhower's move, and he had his excellent staff make preparations for an assault by some of 3rd Army's units against the German southern flank. The German encirclement of Bastogne was broken and the German offensive foundered.

Next...the final part on General Patton.

* A good movie about the D-Day landings is the early 1960s "The Longest Day," based upon a book by the same name by American author Cornelius Ryan. It has a number of well known actors, including John Wayne, Robert Mitchum, Henry Fonda, Richard Burton and Sean Connery. It can easily be purchased or rented. For those studying German, there are quite a number of scenes with German dialogue, with English subtitles. The movie only covers the crucial first day of the landing operations, but it gives a good account of the historical events.

** The area had been German, but had gradually been taken over by France until 1871, when the newly formed modern German nation annexed the province (along with equally disputed province of Alsace) upon the defeat of France in war. France reclaimed the regions after World War One, and Germany took control once again after France was defeated in 1940. The area has been part of France since the end of World War Two, and the matter seems to be settled.

WORD HISTORY:
Sword-This word likely goes back to the Indo European base "suer/swer," with the meaning of "cut." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "swerdan," which then gave Old English "sweord." The "w" sound was once pronounced. Very common in the other Germanic languages: German has "Schwert," Low German Saxon has "Sweert," West Frisian has "swurd," Dutch has "zwaard," Norwegian has "sverd, " Danish has "svaerd," Swedish has "svärd," and Icelandic has "sverð" (similar to 'sverth')

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Patton, Part One

"George S. Patton" Part 1

This highly controversial American World War Two general was made even more famous by the 1970 release of the successful motion picture "Patton," in which the general was portrayed by George C. Scott. Patton had a number family members who were officers in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War, and his family was well off financially. Patton attended West Point and he became a cavalry officer. Later Patton served under General John Pershing during the American expedition into Mexico in response to Pancho Villa's raid into American territory. Patton achieved success in an attack in which he personally killed one of Villa's leaders. This gave the future general his first taste of fame.

During World War One Patton organized American tank units in France, where he was wounded near the end of the war. After the war, Patton teamed up with his future superior Dwight Eisenhower in developing ideas about American armored warfare, including the idea of relentlessly pursuing the enemy with mobile forces to prevent his digging in, and to, in his opinion, prevent higher casualties. Just months before America entered World War Two, Patton was put in command of the U.S. Second Armored Division. In November 1942 Patton was in charge of part of the American forces which landed in French Morocco, well in the rear of German Field Marshal Rommel's retreating army. The defeat of the U.S. II Corps by German and Italian units at the "Battle of Kasserine Pass" prompted General Eisenhower (the overall commander of the American forces there) to put Patton in command of the corps. Patton's strict discipline brought the corps together and helped it (along with other Allied forces) drive the Axis forces back until they surrendered North Africa in May 1943.

Patton was given command of the U.S. Seventh Army for the invasion of Sicily. Initially Patton's army was relegated to protecting the flank of British and Commonwealth forces under the command of Bernard Law Montgomery, but Patton quickly improvised and sent troops into western Sicily and then onto the key city of Messina. It was during the Sicilian Campaign that General Patton slapped a couple of American soldiers who were in hospitals with no wounds. The first incident became a major story, and Patton was ordered by Eisenhower to apologize to the soldier and various units of the army. Patton was removed as commander of the Seventh Army, and while the outward appearance was that the general was in disgrace, Eisenhower actually had big plans for his friend "Georgie" Patton.

WORD HISTORY:
Ox-This noun goes back to Indo European "uksen," which became "ukhson" in its Old Germanic offspring. This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "oxa," which then became "ox." The plural, "oxen," is a retention of the old way English commonly, but not exclusively, formed plurals, and other Germanic languages still often use "n" or "en" to form plurals; for example, German has "Frau" (woman), and "Frauen" (women). Forms of "ox" are common in the other Germanic languages: German has "Ochse," Low German has "Oss," Dutch has "os," West Frisian has "okse," Swedish has "oxe," Icelandic has "uxi," and Norwegian and Danish have "okse."