"A Bridge Too Far" and History

Some information added 12-1-21 to clarify performers roles in the film or to give background to their acting profession.  

The movie "A Bridge Too Far" is based on a non-fiction book of the same name about "Operation Market Garden," a combined Allied airborne and ground attack against German forces in Holland. The subject was long a sore spot for many British, American and Polish political and military leaders, as the operation failed at great loss of life. The book was written by Cornelius Ryan,* published in 1974 by Simon and Schuster in New York. The movie, directed by Richard Attenborough, was released in 1977 by United Artists, and it features a long list of international stars, including, in no particular order: Laurence Olivier (as Dutchman Dr. Spaander), Michael Caine (as British Lt. Colonel Vandeleur), Sean Connery (as British Major General Urquhart), Gene Hackman (as Polish Major General Stanislaw Sosabowski), Robert Redford (as Major Julian Cook, U.S. 82nd Airborne Division), Edward Fox (British Lt. General Horrocks), commander, British XXX. Corps), Anthony Hopkins (as British Lt. Colonel John Frost, a battalion commander in the British 1st Airborne Division), Ryan O'Neal (U.S. Brigadier General Gavin, U.S. 82nd Airborne Division), Hardy Krüger (see further below), Maximilian Schell (see further below), Liv Ullmann (as Dutch housewife Kate ter Horst), James Caan (as U.S. Staff Sergeant Dohun, U.S. 101st Airborne Division), Wolfgang Preiss (see further below), Dirk Bogarde (as British Lt. General Browning, commander of the British Airborne Corps), Elliott Gould (as Colonel Stout, regimental commander with the U.S. 101st Airborne Division) and many others.

Historically, the Allies had invaded France on June 6, 1944, D-Day, by landing a large force in Normandy. While the landing operation was successful, the advance inland was slow to proceed due to difficult terrain and tough German resistance until late July and early August, when a breakout was accomplished. The Allies rolled across France and into Belgium, as disorganized German forces fled into Holland. The Allied advance had been so swift, they began to experience supply shortages, which forced a slowdown in the advance by September.** This respite allowed the Germans to regain their footing somewhat, although the staggering losses suffered by the Germans during the summer made an end to the war still seem possible before the end of the year.*** In an effort to launch a major drive into the heart of Germany, British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery had plans drawn up for a large scale airborne operation to drop and glider land thousands of troops behind German lines in Holland to capture key bridges, near Eindhoven, at Grave, at Nijmegen, and at Arnhem, to be held until a simultaneous ground offensive advancing through Holland could reach each bridge and advance. If the operation were successful, the Allies would be able to go around the German defensive line known to the Allies as the "Siegfried Line" (German: "der Westwall," "the West Wall") and they would have a direct route into the Ruhr industrial area of Germany, which lay not far away. With the industries of the Ruhr out of operation, the Germans would not be able to continue the war for long.

The German situation and perspective in the movie is presented through various scenes with Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt, Field Marshal Walther Model, and SS General Willi Bittrich, as well as an SS General Ludwig (a made up character based on real SS General Heinz Harmel).**** The scenes are in German with English subtitles, so if you are learning German, or if you need to brush up a little, these will give you a great way to do so. Von Rundstedt was known for his snide remarks, and the movie accurately displays this a couple of times, as when a staff officer, who had just related the terrible state of the German forces to the field marshal, asks him what they should do, and von Rundstedt answers, "Quite simply, end the war" ("Ganz einfach, den Krieg beenden"). When the officer later explains to von Rundstedt that the Allies must have supply problems and that he can't otherwise imagine why they haven't advanced into Holland, the field marshal smiles and replies, "I believe the reason is, we're retreating a lot faster than they can advance" ("Ich glaube der Grund ist, dass wir uns viel schneller zurückziehen, als sie vorrücken können").

The movie, available on DVD, briefly, but essentially, addresses this overall military situation and the possibilities for a stunning Allied victory. It also addresses the desire by some military leaders for the operation to go forward, in spite of some intelligence reports indicating German armored forces being in the area. The reports are dismissed, but the lightly armed Allied paratroopers later are vulnerable to these German forces. The Allied ground offensive encounters problems, slowing the advance, and they are "the cavalry, riding to the rescue of the paratroop forces," to use a frequent American "Western" movie plot. The paratroops desperately hold on against mounting German forces, but with mounting casualties.

Historically, the Germans had withdrawn the remnants of two badly mauled Waffen SS Panzer divisions to the Arnhem area prior to their being reequipped. While a number of the divisional units had already shipped out, enough remained to form a striking force against the Allied paratroopers, which, by their very nature, had no heavy combat gear, as once landed, paratroopers are light infantry. Also historically, another thing was, the German commanders threw together any and all small units they could get their hands on to oppose the Allied paratroops and sent them into combat. With Germany not far away, various replacement and training units were quickly dispatched to Holland to help contain and smash the Allied landings. In the end, the operation failed, even though the early objectives were reached, although more slowly than hoped, but the Arnhem bridge remained in German hands,*****  and thousands of Allied paratroops died or were captured, as the "rescuing cavalry" couldn't make it to them quickly enough, if at all. The movie depicts all of this, but with lots of individual stories about British, American and Polish soldiers, as well as some Dutch civilians, including a Dutch father and son who relay information to Allied intelligence about German forces.****** The movie is very much based on fact, but it is not a documentary, and there are liberties taken for the flow of the film and to maintain interest.
        
The film also points out the mistakes made by the Allies, as the rushed operation had errors in the details. In the end, Field Marshal Montgomery sends word that he's pleased with the results, but this was a positive spin put onto a virtual disaster, similar to the oft quoted line by a doctor, "The operation was a success, but the patient died," as the Allies suffered about 17,000 casualties in just one week, and German morale was boosted by their near decimation of the Allied airborne force. It would take the Allies another six months to really move decisively into Germany. World War Two saw the first large scale use of airborne forces, with their advantages and their limitations much in evidence. Earlier in the war, the Germans used a major airborne operation to capture the Greek island of Crete. While successful, their casualties were high, and thereafter Hitler never again used his paratroops (German: "Fallschirmjäger") for such a large operation, most often committing these well trained men to ground fighting, and only to limited jump operations. In fact, as the war went on, fewer and fewer German "paratroops" were actually even trained to make jumps.  

I've read the book, which is very good, and the movie is well worth seeing, especially if you like war movies. There is the human side to the movie too, including the Dutch civilian population, and one American soldier who goes through hell to get his wounded buddy to a field hospital, where he can't get the doctor to examine his friend (I won't disclose the outcome). Of course, courage is on display in various instances, and there is a brave, but light touch to one scene, where the surrounded, badly outnumbered and outgunned British paratroopers are told by an English speaking German officer that "my general is willing to discuss surrender." The British officer replies that, "We don't have the facilities to take all of you Germans prisoner, so we have to reject the offer." The confused German officer walks away.

* Cornelius Ryan was an Irish journalist and author who later moved to the United States and worked as a journalist for some magazines, the most prominent of which was "TIME."

** The Allies had to transport supplies hundreds of miles from Normandy across France to reach their forces in eastern France and in Belgium.

*** The Allied belief that the war could soon be over was not without justification, as the Germans had suffered some 550,000 to 650,000 casualties (killed, wounded, missing/captured) in western Europe from the time of D-Day until September (including southern France, where another Allied invasion took place along the Mediterranean coast in August). Estimates are difficult, but perhaps 20,000 casualties had been taken in Italy in the early summer, where Rome fell on June 4, 1944, and German forces withdrew to northern Italy. In Russia, the southern sector of the front had been pummeled, and Rumania, a German ally, had surrendered and changed sides in August, with German losses of about 250,000 killed, wounded and missing/captured. In the north, Finland, a German ally, battered by Soviet attacks, agreed to a ceasefire in early September, in preparation for the signing of a formal armistice about two weeks later. In central Russia, a huge Soviet offensive in late June brought the virtual destruction of an entire German army group (Army Group Center), and casualties of at least 350,000 killed, wounded and missing/captured (figures vary) in just six weeks time.

**** Von Rundstedt is played by long time German actor Wolfgang Preiss, who played many a German general or other German officer in World War Two movies during his extensive career. SS General Willi Bittrich is played by well known actor Maximilian Schell, who was born in Vienna, but then moved to Zurich, Switzerland with his family because of the Nazis. He was the brother of actress Maria Schell and he won an Academy Award for his performance in "Judgment at Nuremberg," and he was nominated for Academy Awards in other films. Field Marshal Model is played by Austrian actor Walter Kohut, who was married to Immy Schell, another sister of Maximilian Schell. Kohut died just about three years after "A Bridge Too Far" from a circulatory disorder at the age of 52. SS General Ludwig is played by German actor Hardy Krüger (usually as 'Kruger' in English), who is known for a number of non-German films like "Hatari," with John Wayne and "The Secret of San Vittorio," with Anthony Quinn. 

***** As the Arnhem bridge didn't fall to the Allies, thus, "a bridge too far," a comment one British general made about the operation.

****** As with the German scenes, the Dutch scenes are in Dutch, with English subtitles, so if you are learning Dutch, this would be good practice.

Photo from MGM Home Entertainment DVD release, 1998

WORD HISTORY:
Grim-This word goes back to Indo European "ghrem," which had the meaning "to thunder," but also the figurative "to be angry." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "grimmaz," which meant "furious, fierce," and by extension, "gloomy." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "grimm," which meant "fierce, dire, severe, with pain."  This then became "grim," where it has remained for many centuries. The modern meanings of "gloomy (for outlook), downcast (for demeanor), evil looking (for appearance), fierce (for determination), all generally trace back to the old meanings. Old English also had a noun form, "grima," which meant "warrior mask," which "seemingly" led to an association with death, and the further meaning "ghostly figure," and that association with death and ghostly figure most certainly had influence on the development of the term "the Grim Reaper" in the 1800s. Forms in the other Germanic languages: German has the noun "Grimm" (intense feeling of anger, fury) and the adjective "grimmig" (fierce, severe, grim, ferocious); Dutch has "grimmig" (harsh, unpleasant, sullen, gloomy of outlook); Danish has "grim" (ugly); Icelandic "grimmur" (fierce, cruel);   Swedish has "grym" (cruel, wild, fierce); Frisian and Low German Saxon once had "grim," but no longer use the word, and I could not find a form in Norwegian.

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Patton, Part One

"George S. Patton" Part 1

This highly controversial American World War Two general was made even more famous by the 1970 release of the successful motion picture "Patton," in which the general was portrayed by George C. Scott. Patton had a number family members who were officers in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War, and his family was well off financially. Patton attended West Point and he became a cavalry officer. Later Patton served under General John Pershing during the American expedition into Mexico in response to Pancho Villa's raid into American territory. Patton achieved success in an attack in which he personally killed one of Villa's leaders. This gave the future general his first taste of fame.

During World War One Patton organized American tank units in France, where he was wounded near the end of the war. After the war, Patton teamed up with his future superior Dwight Eisenhower in developing ideas about American armored warfare, including the idea of relentlessly pursuing the enemy with mobile forces to prevent his digging in, and to, in his opinion, prevent higher casualties. Just months before America entered World War Two, Patton was put in command of the U.S. Second Armored Division. In November 1942 Patton was in charge of part of the American forces which landed in French Morocco, well in the rear of German Field Marshal Rommel's retreating army. The defeat of the U.S. II Corps by German and Italian units at the "Battle of Kasserine Pass" prompted General Eisenhower (the overall commander of the American forces there) to put Patton in command of the corps. Patton's strict discipline brought the corps together and helped it (along with other Allied forces) drive the Axis forces back until they surrendered North Africa in May 1943.

Patton was given command of the U.S. Seventh Army for the invasion of Sicily. Initially Patton's army was relegated to protecting the flank of British and Commonwealth forces under the command of Bernard Law Montgomery, but Patton quickly improvised and sent troops into western Sicily and then onto the key city of Messina. It was during the Sicilian Campaign that General Patton slapped a couple of American soldiers who were in hospitals with no wounds. The first incident became a major story, and Patton was ordered by Eisenhower to apologize to the soldier and various units of the army. Patton was removed as commander of the Seventh Army, and while the outward appearance was that the general was in disgrace, Eisenhower actually had big plans for his friend "Georgie" Patton.

WORD HISTORY:
Ox-This noun goes back to Indo European "uksen," which became "ukhson" in its Old Germanic offspring. This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "oxa," which then became "ox." The plural, "oxen," is a retention of the old way English commonly, but not exclusively, formed plurals, and other Germanic languages still often use "n" or "en" to form plurals; for example, German has "Frau" (woman), and "Frauen" (women). Forms of "ox" are common in the other Germanic languages: German has "Ochse," Low German has "Oss," Dutch has "os," West Frisian has "okse," Swedish has "oxe," Icelandic has "uxi," and Norwegian and Danish have "okse."

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Eisenhower, Part Three

"Dwight D. Eisenhower" Part 3

Eisenhower made some crucial (and often controversial) decisions during the war. General George Patton often got into trouble during the war,* and Eisenhower reprimanded him, but he also continued to recognize Patton's talents that could help bring the war to a successful conclusion, supporting the naming of Patton to command the U.S. Third Army, a critical force for the breaking of the German lines in Normandy. Further, the launching of the D-Day invasion was hampered by bad weather conditions, but Eisenhower made a bold decision to go forward, catching the Germans sort of "off guard," because they did not consider the weather conditions favorable for the invasion, and many commanders, including Field Marshal Rommel, were away from their commands. Eisenhower also prepared a statement accepting responsibility for the failure of the invasion, if that result had taken place. How many people do any of us know who would take such responsibility?

In advance of the invasion, Eisenhower made it a point to visit the units to be involved in the invasion, and there is a famous photograph of him talking with American paratroopers who would soon be dropped in the rear areas of Normandy. In September 1944 Eisenhower went along with British Field Marshal Montgomery's plan to drop paratroops behind the German lines in the Netherlands in conjunction with a ground offensive. The operation was very costly, as the Germans reacted quickly and killed or captured many of the paratroops, and the operation did not succeed in its overall objectives. In December 1944, Hitler launched a major winter offensive against American forces near the Belgian-German border. The initial success of the attack brought a controversial decision from Eisenhower to place British Field Marshal Montgomery in charge of operations in the area; thus placing American troops under Montgomery's command, something that did not sit well with some Americans.** During this same time period, Eisenhower was promoted to "General of the Army (Five Star General)," the equivalent to a British or German field marshal. As the war neared its end, Eisenhower made the decision NOT to send forces to capture Berlin, but to permit the Soviets to take the city.***

As the war ended, Eisenhower ordered extensive documentation, including photos and films, of the horrors of the Nazi concentration camps under control of the Western Allies. The documentation served to prosecute Nazi leaders at the Nuremberg Trials in the postwar period, but it still serves to this day to refute those who deny the perpetration of the atrocities, including absurd Nazi apologists.

Next, the final installment on Eisenhower.

* I'll be doing an article on General Patton in the near future, and I will cover these issues then, but Patton first got into trouble by slapping a soldier in a hospital during the Sicily campaign. The incident became a big story, and Eisenhower required a public apology from Patton, including to the units of the Seventh Army, then under his command.

** Montgomery's claim to have saved the Americans made the controversy even worse, but "Monty," like Patton, was never one to fail to build up his own image.

*** For more information on the Berlin decision, see my article: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2011/09/allies-berlin-1945.html

WORD HISTORY:
Curse-This word, meaning "a spoken wish that harm come to someone," has a very shaky history. Attempts to connect this word to an ancestral term have been unsatisfactory, at best, as "apparently" there are no words in the other Germanic languages, past or present, that qualify as a relative, nor does it seem to have been borrowed from Latin or Celtic.^ Anyway, Old English (Anglo-Saxon) had "curs," before the modern version. The verb form in Old English was "cursian," and from the notion of "putting a curse on someone," came the idea during the 1200s of "using profanity" ("curse words") perhaps in the sense, "damn those people who steal" (literally, a "curse"), and then later meaning any profanity. "Cuss," the verb form meaning "swear," is from the American dialect of English dating from the early 1800s, where the "r" sound died out.^^ I can hear the English now, "Those damned Americans!"

^ Some speculate it "could" have been borrowed from Latin "cursus," which is the ancestor of English "course," as in "the path taken by a river or a runner, and also a class ('course') taken in education." Celtic was replaced in part of Britain by the Germanic dialects that became English; thus it was thought that perhaps it was borrowed from the language of the Britons, a Celtic dialect, but no successful connection has been made. Just as with Germanic, there are no "apparent" words, past or present, in either Latin or Celtic that seem to match up with "curse."

^^ Essentially the same thing happened with "gal," which is really "girl," where the vowel sound became altered and the "r" died out.

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Montgomery

"Sir Bernard Law Montgomery"

By far the most famous British commander of World War Two, Montgomery was born in London, the son of an Anglican clergyman. He later studied at Sandhurst Military Academy. After graduation his unit was sent to India, then a British colony, but the unit was then sent to France when World War One started, and Montgomery was severely wounded and almost killed there in the fall of 1914. After recuperating, he was again sent to France as a staff officer. After the war he received various promotions and assignments, including service in Ireland prior to its independence from Britain, but he also returned to India and served in the Middle East. By 1938 Montgomery was in command of a division in Palestine, then under British rule (termed a "mandate"), and his division was involved in suppressing revolts by the local non-Jewish, mainly Arab, population.

Montgomery returned to Britain not long before the outbreak of World War Two. He and his new division were sent to France right after Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939. Montgomery and his division were returned to Britain as part of the massive (and highly successful) evacuation from Dunkirk, a northern coastal French city, which had been surrounded by the Germans in 1940. He was given command of an area of southern England, as the country prepared for what seemed a likely German invasion. The seesaw British fortunes in North Africa against German and Italian troops, primarily under the command of General (Field Marshal from summer 1942) Erwin Rommel, "The Desert Fox," brought a decision by Prime Minister Winston Churchill to make major command changes in North Africa and the Middle East. When the newly appointed commander of the British Eighth Army* was killed when the Germans shot down his plane, Montgomery, then a Lieutenant-General, was given command of the army in mid August 1942.

Within a short time, Montgomery's energy had lifted the spirits of troops, as he made many a personal visit to the troops in the field. He also received reinforcements and strengthened defensive positions to keep Rommel's forces from further advances, while he plotted offensive operations to inflict a decisive defeat on the Desert Fox. Military historians have debated Montgomery's slow, but steady going as he built up toward the launching of his offensive.** Just a couple of weeks after assuming command, Montgomery's forces halted a major German-Italian attack, inflicting stinging casualties on the enemy, and forcing Rommel to order a withdrawal to his own defensive positions, thus ending Rommel's drive to capture Cairo and the Suez. British air attacks on Rommel's forces were more than a little helpful in the Allied victory.***

Montgomery finally unleashed his offensive against Rommel on October 23, 1942. After heavy fighting, Allied forces broke through the fortified Axis lines (Rommel loved minefields and barbed wire!), and Rommel, contrary to orders from nutcase-in-chief, Hitler, for Rommel's men to fight to the death, ordered a general retreat. As the remnants of the German and Italian forces retreated from Egypt and into Libya, Allied forces invaded French North Africa, far to the rear of Rommel's retreating army. By May 1943, the Axis forces in North Africa surrendered.

The Allies decided to invade the major Italian island of Sicily in July 1943, based largely upon plans put forth by Montgomery. The role given American forces of supporting Montgomery's main effort brought controversy to the Allied commanders, as Americans saw Montgomery as egotistical and condescending. The successful landing was followed by a grueling effort to clear the island of stubborn and effective German resistance.**** Mainland Italy was then invaded in September 1943, including by Montgomery's Eighth Army in the extreme southern part ("heel") of Italy. The Allied advance was halted by stiff German opposition south of Rome, and Montgomery was recalled to Britain to help prepare for the invasion of France.

Montgomery's plan called for the capture of the French city of Caen (in Normandy) by British forces and then a thrust northward, with American forces coming around the outside of advance. Caen was only taken much later than Montgomery anticipated, and after very heavy casualties, and the Allies didn't breakout of Normandy until August (they had landed on June 6, 1944). This was followed by a Montgomery plan to land airborne forces behind the German lines in the Netherlands in mid September 1944, combined with a ground offensive to link up with those forces. A follow up offensive would carry the Allies into Germany to capture the German industrial region (the Ruhr) and end the war quickly. Montgomery's reputation took a tumble, as part of the airborne landing force was cut to pieces by the Germans. The Germans launched a major offensive in mid December 1944 (known to the Allies as the "Battle of the Bulge," due to the 'bulge' created in the American line by the advancing Germans). Montgomery was temporarily given overall command of American forces in the area, and British troops were positioned to prevent a German breakthrough toward their ultimate (and overly optimistic) objective of Antwerp, which would have cut the Allied forces in two. In the later stages of the battle, Montgomery was criticized for not acting to cut off German forces retreating from the "bulge." Eventually British forces crossed the Rhine River into northern Germany and the war ended in May 1945. Montgomery was then commander of the British occupation forces in Germany, and later was named Chief of the Imperial General Staff. He remained controversial for the rest of his life, offering opinions on segregation in South Africa (he supported it) and even on gay rights (he opposed them), and his memoirs caustically criticized many of his associates from the war, including (by then) American President, Dwight Eisenhower, who had been the Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. Outraged Americans wanted the head of "Monty" (as he was more often known), and Eisenhower never contacted him again. Montgomery died in 1976 in England, age 88.

* The Eighth Army was the army headquarters in charge of British and Commonwealth troops in Egypt. At that time, August 1942, Rommel's advance had been halted near the railway station of El Alamein.

** Montgomery's experiences of the terrible casualties of World War One, when waves of men were sacrificed for little or no gain, made him cautious in his operations. He chose to build up his forces to a point where they were pretty much guaranteed victory, due to overwhelming numbers. Some military people criticize his caution; others admire his deliberate pace and attempts to avoid heavy casualties. To be quite honest, there isn't any one correct answer. If you have seen the superb movie, "Patton," this same debate is depicted between Patton and General Omar Bradley during operations on Sicily. Patton, ever the "keep advancing, regardless of casualties" kind of commander, is confronted by the more deliberate Bradley. Patton, Bradley's superior, prevails, and so do the American forces, but at high cost. Patton tells Bradley the casualties would have been even higher had they waited, but these arguments are really never ending.

*** The decisive use of air power by the Allies in ground operations was something of a rarity at that time, as the German use of air power to support their ground forces had been a key component in their victories since the beginning of the war. Montgomery and other Allied commanders took note of the German tactics and turned them to their own advantage, something that lasted until the end of the war. Allied air power was often cited by Rommel for his pessimistic view of the eventual outcome of the war, although he believed a defeat of an Allied landing in France could still save Germany from total defeat. When that landing came (D-Day), Allied air power was so overwhelming, it prevented the timely arrival of German reinforcements to the invasion area, as German armored units (Panzer units), especially, had to do most of their travel at night to avoid being sitting ducks for Allied fighter-bombers. Even when the units arrived at their destinations, they had often already suffered losses to their tank strength from air attacks.

**** While Italian troops far outnumbered German troops on Sicily, many, but certainly not all, Italians chose to give up the fight and surrendered at first chance. Most Italian units involved were composed of reservists. On the other hand, many of the Germans were first class troops, including reinforcements by the highly regarded German paratroopers.

WORD HISTORY:
Small-This word traces back to Indo European "smalo," which had the general meaning "small," a meaning apparently often used of animals. This gave its Old Germanic offspring "smalaz," also with the meaning "small, narrow." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "smael," with the same basic meaning. This then later became "smal," before the modern version. Its other Germanic relatives are: German "schmal," Low German Saxon "small," other Low German "schmaul," Dutch "smal," Frisian "smel," all tending more toward the meaning "narrow," but also in "small," in some cases. Swedish, Danish and Norwegian have two forms, "små" (“small”) and also "smal" ("narrow"). I could not find a form in Icelandic, so I assume it has died out.

"Patton:" Just A Great Movie

"Patton" is just one of the greatest "personality" pictures ever made, played to the hilt by actor George C. Scott. Scott's portrayal is so intense, I cannot to this day, over forty years after the release of the picture, hear or see something about the real General Patton without thinking of George C. Scott. If I remember correctly, I went to see the movie three times during its original release. The writers worked many of General Patton's own words into the picture,* "salty" language and all, and the movie certainly captures the nutty instability, fanaticism, brilliance, showmanship and ego problems of the famous general's personality. It begins with his command of American troops in North Africa during the last stages of the war there to defeat Rommel. While he sees the German field marshal as a worthy opponent, whose defeat can enhance his own career, he also develops an enduring rivalry with another man of similar ego problems, British General (later Field Marshal) Montgomery, "Monty," during this period of the war. Rommel, played by German actor Karl Michael Vogler, and Montgomery, played by British actor Michael Bates, are two "obsessions" which drive Patton throughout the war.

The writers also took the interesting angle of providing insight into Patton's personality by showing how the German military viewed Patton, and there are numerous scenes at German military headquarters at various points during the war, where top generals try to keep tabs on Patton. Much of their information comes from an army intelligence captain (a fictional character used by the writers) who tells them how Patton is a military historian who believes in reincarnation (which he did). The captain calculates Patton's future moves through this information, such as the invasion of the Italian island of Sicily. Historically, the decision to invade Sicily was made far above Patton's command, by the Allied political leaders, with input from the military, but it was not Patton's decision. If you follow the movie closely enough, it does not claim that Sicily was Patton's decision, but it simply tries to show how the Germans began to obsess over Patton's movements, and how they attributed many major decisions to him, since they saw Patton as the "best commander" the Allies had.

The movie then takes the viewer into the campaign in Sicily, where Patton drives his army to great military exploits, often with great casualties. His reputation is tarnished by his unstable temperament which is put into the spotlight by his slapping of a shell shocked soldier in a hospital. He then threatens to shoot the soldier himself. The Germans think this whole episode is a ruse to cover what they believe is Patton's real mission, the command of the Allied forces assembling for the invasion of German-occupied France. They so respect Patton, they cannot believe his slapping of a soldier would keep the Allies from giving "their best general" the top command. Herein is one of Patton's historical legacies; he fights to free people from the Nazis, yet his love of war and his tactics, ruthless at times, are similar to those of the Nazis. The fact that the German military was so respectful and fearful of Patton has only served Patton's critics as proof of his Nazi-like similarities. That is something you'll have to decide for yourself.

The movie takes the action to France, where Patton, deprived of the top command, is given command of an army that will lead the breakthrough effort in Normandy. The Allied advance has been held in relative check by the Germans, under none other than Field Marshal Rommel. With Montgomery also present in France, Patton and Monty race to see who can get to Germany first and secure a German surrender. Patton's inability to control his temper, and his statements to the press, keeps him in hot water throughout the movie (and in real life), including AFTER the war, when he said the Allies should then have gone to war with Soviet Russia, even rearming the just defeated German troops to do so.

If you have never seen this picture, please do so! If you haven't seen it for years, see it again. It is readily available on DVD. It is a war picture, but it is really about Patton first and foremost, and George C. Scott is unforgettable in the title role. For those learning German or for those wanting to practice their understanding of German, the film has several scenes in German (with English subtitles); likewise, there is a bit of French, too.

* General Omar Bradley, Patton's close associate during the war (sometimes being his subordinate and sometimes his superior), was a consultant for the film, and author Ladislas Farago's book "Patton: Ordeal and Triumph" provided much of the material for the script. Bradley, also a highly successful American commander during World War Two, had a very different personality compared to Patton, and the two, while friends, often clashed over matters. Bradley is portrayed in the movie by Karl Malden, who then went on to star in the television crime and detective drama, "The Streets of San Francisco," during much of the 1970s.  

WORD HISTORY:
General-This word, used as both an adjective and as a noun, goes back to the Indo European root "gen," which meant "produce, offspring." This gave its Latin "offspring" (I couldn't help that) "genus," with the meaning "type, kind, stock, race," a word still used in scientific/botanical lingo. This then gave Latin "generalis," with the meaning "from the overall genus, from the whole." This gave Old French, a heavily Latin-based language, "general," with the same meaning. The word seems to have been borrowed into English in the late 1100s or early 1200s in its adjectival form and still with the meaning "from the overall body or class of something;" that is, "not specific," and we still use that meaning today, as in, for instance, "general store;" that is, "a store that sells a little of everything, not a specialty store." During the 1500s, French used the term "capitaine general" for a military rank for "a captain in charge of a large body of troops," and "general" was still an adjective in this form. French, English and other languages dropped the "capitaine" part, leaving "general," a noun form, for a superior commander. German, too, borrowed the word in the same form, "General," but the pronunciation uses a hard "g."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Forty-Six

"Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Two/F/3
"Germany Versus the Soviet Union" Part Three
"The German Tide Ebbs"

On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii (then a U.S. territory, not a state). President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Congress agreed to a declaration of war on Japan. Roosevelt had been trying to help Britain as much as possible, without getting the U.S. directly involved in the war, by sending material aid to the British. Before Pearl Harbor, the American public was split over possible American involvement in the war. Hitler solved the issue of American participation in the war against Germany by declaring war on the United States on December 11 at a session of the Reichstag. Always the racist, Hitler didn't seem to realize that he was bringing a formidable foe into the war against him. Various statements indicated he believed Americans could not fight well, because they were such a mixture of ethnic and racial groups. Such nonsense helped to hasten his demise. Mussolini followed suit with a declaration of war by Italy on the United States. It wasn't long before heavily armed convoys were transporting American troops and war equipment to Britain.

In North Africa, Rommel's German and Italian forces faced a new British commander, Bernard Montgomery, and "Monty" launched a major offensive against Rommel in late October 1942, in what became the last part of the El Alamein battle. After terrible losses of men and equipment, and in spite of Hitler's order to hold his positions, Rommel ordered a retreat. Thousands of Axis prisoners were taken by the Allies. Meanwhile, the Americans and British forces landed troops in the French North African colonies of French Morocco and Algeria, which were behind Rommel's retreating army. Hitler and Mussolini rushed troops to Tunisia, another French colony sandwiched between Rommel's retreating forces in Libya and the Allied forces which had just landed. French resistance to the landings was relatively light, and the struggle then centered on Tunisia. While Rommel inflicted a punishing defeat on the Americans at a place called "Kasserine Pass" in February 1943, the German and Italian forces surrendered in May 1943. This now left Italy vulnerable to attack.

In the Soviet Union, Hitler's stalled capture of Stalingrad gave the Soviets time to gather fresh troops north and south of the city. In mid November 1942 they struck, breaking through primarily overwhelmed Rumanian lines and trapping a large German, and a smaller Rumanian force, in and around Stalingrad. By early February 1943, the remaining encircled forces surrendered to the Soviets. During the overall Soviet operations that winter, the whole southern sector of the Axis front was pummeled, and a Hungarian army and an Italian army, besides two Rumanian armies and a German army were essentially destroyed. The Germans did not stabilize the front until February/March 1943, but they had lost virtually all of their gains from the previous summer. Although there would still be much intense fighting, Hitler's days were numbered.

WORD HISTORY:
Ebb-This word, closely related to "off," goes back to Indo European "apo," which meant "off, away (from)." This gave Old Germanic "ab," with the same meaning, and from that Old Germanic developed "abjon," with the meaning "tide flowing away, tide flowing 'off' from shore;" thus, "low tide." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "ebba," which later dropped the ending "a." The figurative use to mean "decline of someone or something" was already in use in the 1300s. There are various forms present in the other Germanic languages: German has "Ebbe," Low German Saxon has "Ebben," West Frisian has "ebbe," Dutch "eb," Icelandic has "ebbið" (=ebbith), Swedish has "ebb," Norwegian has "ebbe" and Danish has "ebbe." Some of the Germanic languages still retain a verb form, English being one of those, and in Old English it was "ebbian." Dutch has "ebben."