Guadeloupe Crabmeat and Rice: Matété à Crabe

Guadeloupe is a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea that are a part of France, as an overseas region. Its population is around 400,000. The name came via Christopher Columbus upon his visit to the islands in 1493, from the town of Guadalupe in west-central Spain, where there was a shrine to the Virgin Mary. By the first half of the 1600s the French had taken a major interest in the islands and they brought French colonists and then African slaves to develop farming.* France actually took control of the islands in the second half of the 1600s, but the British took control for several years in the mid 1700s (they were at war with France). Since then, wars and treaties saw Guadeloupe mainly under French control, although there were brief intervals of British and even Swedish control. The spelling "Guadeloupe" is the French form, as France kept the Spanish name of the islands bestowed by Columbus, an Italian (just to add more international flavor).

 

This dish of crab and rice is one of the best known dishes of Guadeloupe, but there are variations. The people of Guadeloupe have lots of access to seafood, so it is not uncommon for some people there to fix whole small or even larger crabs separately from the basic rice dish, which is then used as a side dish. Others use just the meat of the crabs and add it to the top of the seasoned rice or mix it in, as I have done here. Naturally, most of us don't have easy and affordable access to crab, but we can settle for lump crab meat from the supermarket or the seafood shop, although the "affordable" part may be elusive, as crab has generally always been moderately to extremely expensive through the years. The dish can have a "kick," because of the chili pepper, most commonly "scotch bonnet chilies" in Guadeloupe, but if you don't like heat, you can use a little ground hot red pepper, just to mildly season the dish.     

  

Ingredients: 

1 to 1 1/2 cups lump crab meat

1/2 cup chopped white onion

3 scallions/green onions, chopped, green included

1 teaspoon dried thyme (or 1 tablespoon fresh thyme) 

4 cloves garlic, finely chopped

1 cup chopped tomatoes with juice

2 tablespoons vegetable oil or olive oil

3 whole cloves

2 tablespoons chopped parsley

1/2 teaspoon ground black pepper

1 teaspoon salt 

1 or 2 scotch bonnet (or habanero) chilies, seeded and finely chopped

1 cup rice cooked (see instructions, below)

Cook the rice according to the instructions on the package of the brand you use, but instead of plain water, add 1 bottle of clam broth (also called "clam juice") and enough water to equal 2 cups of liquid (if you have seafood stock, use 2 cups of it instead), then add 1/2 teaspoon salt, 1 tablespoon olive oil and 2 bay leaves (these few ingredients for the rice are separate from the ingredients listed for the rest of the recipe). Again, follow the instructions on the package to cook the rice, and when done, remove the two bay leaves. This rice will be added to the mixture you make with these instructions: Heat the oil in a heavy bottom pan over medium heat, then add the onion and saute for just 2 minutes, then add garlic, tomatoes, scallions, thyme, cloves, parsley, black pepper, salt and chili pepper(s), cook for 3 to 4 minutes, then add crab meat and cook another 4 minutes, stirring often. Turn heat to low and add the cooked rice and mix it into the other ingredients, cook 3 to 4 minutes stirring often. Sprinkle with lime juice.

 

* According to the "CIA World Fact Book," the demographic population of Guadeloupe is about 75% black or black and white mixed race, with 11% white and the rest of various backgrounds including East Indian and Asian.

 

WORD HISTORY:

Muscle (Mussel)-This word, closely related to "mouse,"^ goes back to Indo European "mush/moosh," which meant "mouse, rodent," but also "leg or arm muscle," perhaps from the scampering mouse like appearance of the muscle when being flexed. This gave its Latin offspring "mus," meaning "mouse, small rodent." From this, Latin developed the word "musculus," which meant "muscle," but which literally meant "little mouse." French borrowed the word as "muscle" from Latin and English borrowed that word from French in the 1300s. A verb form, meaning "to use force" (muscle), developed from the noun in English, "apparently" in the early 20th Century. With Latin terms heavily involved in medicine and science, forms of the word "muscle" spread to other languages, including to close relatives of English, German and Low German, both of which have "Muskel." The clam-like creature name "mussel" is really the same word, but it was borrowed directly from Latin "muscula," seemingly a diminutive form from Latin "musculus" (see above), and the word in Old English was "muscule" (likely pronounced "mus-kulah," in imitation of the Latin word), but then it became "muscelle" (likely from French influence), and then it became "muscle" during the Middle Ages, but by the first part of the 1600s the spelling "mussel" began to appear, and by the 1800s, that spelling became far more common, "apparently" this spelling was preferred by many to distinguish it from "muscle."  

 

^ For the "Word History" of "mouse," see my previous article at: https://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2013/02/steinbecks-of-mice-and-men-great-book.html

Saint Martin Sweet Potato & Pumpkin Pudding

Saint Martin is an island in the eastern part of the Caribbean Sea. The island of Saint Martin, however, is home to two separate countries: "Sint Maarten," which is a part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and it is located on the southern part of the island, and "Saint Martin," yes, the same name as the overall island, which is a part of France, and it is located on the northern part of the island. The entire island has a population of between 76,000 and 80,000, with the Dutch part having a slightly larger share of the population. The island was named for Saint Martin of Tours, who was bishop of Tours in Roman Gaul (later to become France) in the second half of the 300s. He was born in eastern Europe, in what would later become Hungary (the Magyars, essentially the people who became the Hungarians, were not even in Europe at the time of his birth). He died in Novemeber 397 and he was buried on November 11. People began honoring him on that day (November 12 in Eastern Orthodox) and many Christians saw him as a saint, although he was not officially declared a saint in the Roman Catholic faith until 1962 (Pope John XXIII). English is the common language of many of the residents of the entire island, although French is the official language of the French part and Dutch is official in the Dutch part.

  

Use "pumpkin puree," which is pure pumpkin, whereas pumpkin pie filling has ingredients added to the pumpkin. While you're going to add spices anyway, you may wonder why it matters, and perhaps it doesn't matter to you, but by using pure pumpkin, you can then control the ingredients going into your dish. If you use pumpkin pie filling, you won't need to add the spices, except where you have a preference for a particular spice. This is a slightly altered version of a recipe from a recipe as part of this link: http://www.stmartinisland.org/st-martin-restaurants/culinary-traditions-of-st-martin.html

Ingredients: 

1 sweet potato, cut into chunks (or grated if you're not using a food processor/blender)

2 cups pumpkin puree 

1 1/4 cup sugar

3 egg yolks, beaten

1 1/2 teaspoon cinnamon

1/2 cup butter

1 can evaporated milk (12 ounce can, NOT sweetened condensed milk) 

1/4 cup flour

1 tablespoon vanilla

1 teaspoon allspice

1 teaspoon nutmeg or mace

1/2 teaspoon ground black pepper

3/4 cup raisins

2 tablespoons rum

3 egg whites, stiffly beaten

Heat the oven 350 F. Mix everything together, except the raisins and the egg whites. Once the basic mixture is well combined, stir in the raisins. Beat the egg whites to stiff peaks. Fold in the egg whites. Bake in a well buttered baking dish for 90 minutes. Serve with vanilla ice cream or whipped cream.

I had the pudding with some vanilla ice cream ...

WORD HISTORY:  

Tin-The ultimate origin of "tin" is unknown, but it goes back to Old Germanic "tinan," which meant "tin," and there are no known relatives of the Germanic form in other language families, only forms borrowed from Germanic languages. The Germanic form gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "tin," the form that has endured for so many centuries in English, right up to the present (this is also true in Low German, Frisian and Dutch, which is quite remarkable^). Relatives in the Germanic languages: German has "Zinn" (pronounced as if, "tsin," and once spelled with just one "n"), Low German Saxon has "Tinn," Dutch and West Frisian "tin," Danish "tin," Norwegian "tinn," Swedish "tenn," Icelandic "tin."  (NOTE: For a long time people thought tin was a lesser form of silver, because of the mixing in of other metals. This brought about the use of "tin" in disparaging expressions like "tin ear" ("person with little or no ability to understand musical subtleties;" broadened to also mean, "a person unable to discern public sentiment on an issue") and "tinhorn" ("a person less than satisfactory in performance of a job, even though they act competent").    

^ Low German and Dutch briefly had a secondary spelling of "ten," but "tin" remained during that time and persisted until all speakers of those languages again used just "tin."

French Tuna Salad Sandwich: Pan Bagnat

French "Pan Bagnat" is considered one of the supreme picnic foods by many people in France, especially in its home region of southern France around Nice and vicinity. The meaning of the French name is "bathed bread," because the bread is bathed in olive oil and some vinaigrette. It is a combination of the famous French salad, "Salad Niçoise,"* although not everyone uses all of the varied salad ingredients in this sandwich; in fact, some do not even use tuna, but rather sardines and/or anchovies. The foundation of this sandwich is the bread and the olive oil. "Traditionally" small crusty loaves of bread are used, or crusty rolls, typically a day or two old, as the crust will stand up to the oil and vinaigrette and soak it in, but not fall apart. Baguettes are also used and then sliced into sections. The thing is, not everyone can bite into and chew crusty bread, including me, so I use somewhat softer bread or rolls, although I give them just a little toasting first. You also want to use tuna packed in olive oil, and then use good extra virgin olive oil for the sandwich. The small dark Niçoise olives are traditional for this sandwich (and for the salad), but they may be difficult to find, and Kalamata olives or other dark olives are fine. I'm not very fond of the common canned black olives sold in U.S., but if you like them, hey, who am I to condemn you to being chopped like a "Salad Niçoise?" While certainly not traditional, if you like some "heat," add some chopped chili pepper, or a couple of small whole chilies to the sandwich. I've actually seen this sandwich made with green beans added! One more thing, if you find these sandwiches somewhat messy, do not despair, you've likely succeeded, as they are meant to be almost dripping with olive oil and the juices from the sandwich. 

Ingredients:

 

2 cans (6 ounce cans) tuna in olive oil

2/3 of a sliced red bell pepper (thinly sliced into about 2 inch slices)

1/3 cup chopped red onion (small chop)

1 large garlic clove, minced

2 or 3 small tomatoes (Romas are good for this, but if you don't have them, say "Arrivederci Roma"), thinly sliced

1/3 cup halved Niçoise olives (or Kalamata olives)

5 to 6 tablespoons extra virgin olive oil, divided use

1 or 1+ tablespoons red wine vinegar

1 tablespoon Dijon mustard

1 teaspoon honey

6 to 8 basil leaves

1/2 teaspoon ground black pepper

1/2 teaspoon salt

baguettes, kaiser rolls or small loaves of ciabatta bread 

serve with some cornichons on the side

 

Cut each piece of bread or roll in half lengthwise. You can take out a little of the inside of both halves of the bread/rolls to make a little room for the filling. In a bowl mix together the tuna (with its olive oil), red bell pepper slices, red onion, garlic, olive halves, ground black pepper, salt and 3 tablespoons of extra virgin olive oil. In a cup, mix together 2 tablespoons extra virgin olive oil, 1 tablespoon Dijon mustard, 1 tablespoon red wine vinegar and 1teaspoon honey (taste the mixture and you can add more vinegar if that suits your taste). Put a few of the thinly sliced tomato pieces on the bread/rolls (if you've removed some of the bottom of the bread, put the tomato slices there). Spoon some of the tuna salad onto the tomato slices and smooth it out. Drizzle on some of the dressing and then add a couple of basil leaves. Place the tops on the sandwiches and press down a bit, then wrap each sandwich in plastic wrap. Put a tray or plate on top of the sandwiches with some fairly heavy item, like a skillet, to weigh them down, and put them into the refrigerator for at least 1 hour, but 8 or 10 hours is better. 

 

* For "Salad Niçoise," here is the link:  https://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2016/07/salad-nicoise-sort-of.html

 

I added a few cornichons on the side ...

WORD HISTORY:

Scald-This word is likely distantly related to "callus," a word borrowed by English from Latin, but it is related to "chowder," "cauldron," and "calorie," all Latin words borrowed via Latin-based French. "Scald" goes back to Indo European "kel(he)," which meant, "warm, hot." This gave Latin the verb "caldere," meaning, "to be warm/hot" (with other meanings over time). Latin added the prefix "ex" ("out, out from, away from") from Indo European "eghs," which had those meanings and many similar ones. This gave Latin "excaldere," meaning, "to make warm or hot by putting into warm/hot water;" thus also, "to bathe in warm/hot water." This gave Old French "eschalder" meaning, "to rinse or bathe with warm or hot water," with the northern French dialects (rendered as "escalder") meaning, "to burn with hot water or other hot liquid." This was borrowed by English in the first half of the 1200s as "scalden," with that same meaning, "seemingly" a little later adding the meaning, "to heat liquid to near boiling." As English verb conjugation changed, the "en" ending was dropped.  

Aioli, Is It Garlic Mayonnaise?

"Aioli," and there are variations in the term by language or dialect ("allioli" in some areas of Spain, for instance),* is a general term for a sauce common in the western Mediterranean area of eastern Spain, southern France and northwestern Italy. There are "generally" two types of aioli; one of olive oil combined with garlic, which "seems" to be the traditional sauce, and the other, a combination of olive oil, garlic, lemon juice and egg (either whole eggs or just yolks), now often simply with prepared mayonnaise substituted for the raw egg. The traditional aioli method involved crushing cloves of garlic with a mortar and pestle, then gradually adding olive oil while stirring the mixture until it formed a sauce, with some adding a little lemon juice, others omitting it. Nowadays a blender or food processor is used to make the sauce. The "egg type" seems to have developed, or at least to have become popular, in southern France. The blended egg and ingredients made a garlic mayonnaise, and this type has become the best known, with even two of my Spanish cookbooks giving recipes for this type, with only scant mention of the traditional aioli, which is still used in parts of Spain. Of course, for the egg style aioli, the use of store bought mayonnaise is both convenient and safer than using raw egg. Aioli is commonly served with fish or other seafood, steamed vegetables, as well as with other foods.     

Ingredients:

1/2 cup mayonnaise (reduced fat style is fine)
3 cloves garlic
2 tablespoons olive oil 
1 tablespoon lemon juice
1/4 teaspoon salt
pinch pepper

In a blender or food processor, combine all ingredients until smooth. Chill the aioli.  
 
* One of my Spanish cookbooks spells it, "ali oli" (two words), and it also notes that in some parts of Spain it is called "ajiaceite" and "ajoaceite." 

WORD HISTORY:
Ball (#2)-This is the noun (related to "ballet") meaning, "dance (usually a formal dance)," and it is a totally different word from "ball," with the meaning, "rounded object." It goes back to Indo European "gwele/gwela," with the notion of, "bubble up, rise up, overflow, throw outward or upward," and it is distantly related to Old English "cwylla," which meant "a spring;" that is, "a source of water" ("water that rises out of the ground," and German still uses "Quelle," with this meaning, as well as, more commonly, the general meaning "source"). The Indo European form gave transliterated Greek "ballizein," with the meaning, "to jump about in dance" (literally, "to throw oneself about"). Latin borrowed the term from Greek as "ballare," also meaning, "to dance." This passed to Latin-based Old French as, "baller," with the same meaning, and which produced the noun, "bal," meaning, "a dance." English borrowed the word from French, circa 1650.

Salad Niçoise, Sort Of

The word "niçoise" (pronounced: nee-swaz) simply refers to olives cured in the French city of Nice, which is located in the well known resort region of the French Riviera in southeastern France, along the Mediterranean coast.* So "niçoise" essentially means "from Nice, of Nice." The small dark olives are commonly grown in that general area of France. There are many variations on this common French salad, but I'm using my own "no cook" recipe. Often in France, fresh green beans are briefly cooked, keeping some crispness, for this salad, and boiled potato slices or chunks may also be added. Further, the dressing used is a vinaigrette, which includes Dijon mustard, but I used a little different homemade dressing. (Note: The mark under the letter 'c' in the French rendering of "niçoise" is called a 'cedilla,' and it indicates that the 'c' is pronounced as an 's.' Besides French, it is most notably used in Portuguese and Catalan, a language of eastern Spain and a part of southern France.)  

INGREDIENTS:

Niçoise olives (or other black olives in olive oil, or Kalamata olives)
3 Roma tomatoes, quartered (or about 12 to 15 grape tomatoes, halved lengthwise)
1 small can chunk tuna in olive oil
5 anchovy fillets in oil, rinsed, left whole or chopped
3 hard-boiled eggs, quartered
1/2 medium red bell pepper, cut into strips
1/2 medium red onion, sliced thinly
salt & pepper to taste
a few basil leaves, torn into thirds or quarters
lettuce to line the serving plate
dressing (see recipe link below **)

Line a plate or platter with lettuce leaves (you can use any type: head lettuce, butter lettuce, Boston lettuce). Place the tuna in the center, then arrange the tomatoes, onions, red bell pepper, and olives around the tuna. Top the arrangement with the egg quarters and anchovies, then add the torn basil leaves, finish with salt and pepper, or leave this to the individuals to add per their own taste. I used no salt, as the anchovy fillets and dressing add salt, so I would be careful how much salt you add, if any. The salad dressing can be placed on the table in a dish with serving spoon, and the individual servings can be topped with the dressing per the person's own taste.
 
* On the Italian side of the border is the Italian Riviera, located in the Liguria region of Italy, but within the French Riviera is one of the world's smallest countries, Monaco.

** This is the link to the recipe article I did for French salad dressing: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2016/07/homemade-creamy-country-french-dressing.html

I used some whole black olives in oil, but the store was out of the other cured black olives they carry in their olive bar. I also added some Kalamata olives (the smaller brown colored olives), but they are in a brine. Niçoise olives might be difficult to find, so you may have to substitute other types. I kept the anchovies whole, so they could be seen in the photo, but you can chop them.

WORD HISTORY:
Sumptuous-This word, related to "consume," is a compound meaning, "splendid, seemingly expensive;" thus, "luxurious."  I will do its history from more recent to ancient. English borrowed the word from French "somptueux" in the second half of the 1400s. French, a Latin-based language, had the word from Latin "sumptuosus" (expensive), itself from Latin "sumptus," which meant "expense." This came from the Latin verb "sumere," meaning "to take, to acquire;" thus, "to buy." This came from the prefix "sub" (under, from below), the origins of which are unclear,^ and from "emere" (to take), "likely" from Italic^^ "emer/emo," derived from Indo European "em/um," with the notion of "take, acquire."

^ I "may" do a separate history of the prefix "sub," which "may" be an Italic form related to the Old Germanic word which gave English the modern word "up."

^^ Italic is a branch of the Indo European family of languages and includes Latin, Umbrian, Venetic, and others, most of which have died out. Latin's limited use today is mainly because its dialects evolved into several modern languages: Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Rumanian, Catalan, Sardinian, and several others.

"The Train," Lancaster & Scofield Star

"The Train" is a suspenseful black and white film by MGM from 1964 starring well known American actor Burt Lancaster and acclaimed English actor Paul Scofield.* John Frankenheimer took over directing the movie after filming had already begun, replacing demoted director Arthur Penn. The film is set in France in August of 1944. The Allied armies, having broken out of Normandy, are heading for Paris and the German border. An art-loving German colonel, played by Paul Scofield, seeks to transport a large number of pilfered French paintings from their place in a French art museum to Germany. Although the military situation for the Germans is dire, the colonel's quest to get the paintings out of France is an obsession. While transport is scare, he is able to get a train, with a French crew, for the transport of the precious cargo to Germany. Meanwhile, the museum's curator contacts the French Resistance for help in recovering the stolen paintings, with the idea that if the train can be delayed for a few days, the Allied forces will overtake the Germans and return the paintings to French custody without damage. The local Resistance leader Labiche, played by Burt Lancaster, is reluctant to risk the lives of his men for "paintings," but he and the French train crew, all members of the Resistance, set out on the trip with the paintings, along with heavy German troop security, including the obsessed Colonel Waldheim.

So as not to spoil anything, I won't go into all that happens, but the train's journey is fraught with suspense and clever maneuvers by the Resistance to delay the train, as the desperate and ruthless Colonel Waldheim presses forward, even when the Allies are only a few miles away. The film is "loosely" based upon the historical fact that a train in August of 1944 was loaded with stolen French artwork to be shipped to Germany. Scofield's performance as the icy Colonel Waldheim is superb, as in many ways he symbolizes what so many people have asked about Germany over the years since Hitler: "How could such terrible things have been done by people of a cultured country like Germany?" Waldheim sees himself as so cultured, he even looks down upon the Frenchmen trying to delay the train, feeling they don't really understand the great paintings they are trying to save from his grasp. But Waldheim's deeds speak far more than his culture, which is exactly what happened with so many Germans during that era.

* Scofield would win the Best Actor Academy Award for his portrayal of Sir Thomas More in the 1966 film, "A Man for All Seasons."

Photo is from the 2015 Kino Lorber DVD release.

WORD HISTORY:
Train-This word, related to "tractor," goes back to Indo European "tragh," which had the notion of "drag, pull." This gave Latin "trahere," meaning "to pull," which then produced Latin "tragere," and from that, "traginare," again meaning "pull, drag." This gave Old French "trainer," with the same meaning, and this produced "train," which meant "trail," including "a long cloak that 'trails' behind." English borrowed the word in the 1300s and the notion of "trailing behind" soon led to the idea of things moving in succession, which eventually led to the word being used for "a succession of rail wagons or cars," in the early part of the 1800s. The verb came from the noun, with the notion of "pulling the stems or branches of growing plants into a particular shape;" thus, the "train" of physical activity ("to pull oneself into a certain physical condition), but also of mental instruction. The idea of directing a cannon or gun gave the meaning of "to take aim" (1840s?), as in, "The sniper trained his rifle on the enemy captain." 

Coffee: "Grounds" For A Love Affair

This article was updated slightly on June 19, 2015.


Each day one hell of a lot of people get their day going with coffee. In fact, quite a number of people keep their day going with coffee. "Apparently" coffee plants grew wild in Kaffa, a province of Ethiopia (also known for a long time as "Abyssinia") and the locals began using the plant to make a drink around 1000 A.D., give or take a hundred years or so. People from the Arabian Peninsula got hold of some plants and began to make a regular business out of growing and making coffee, but when the Turks acquired some plants in the 1500s, they seem to have been the first to roast the berries from the plant, the "beans," which they then ground and boiled in water. Venice was a major trade center in Europe in those times, and the Venetian traders brought coffee home in the early 1600s. It wasn't long before the Venetians and other Italians opened a number of coffeehouses, the first in Europe.* Trade and diplomatic missions brought coffee to France in the mid 1600s, where the French opened "cafés," the French term for "coffeehouses." The mid 1600s also brought coffee to England, where literally hundreds of coffeehouses opened in a relatively short period of time. Of course it wasn't long before European colonists from several nations began toting coffee off to the New World, where it has flourished ever since, and several countries are among the world's biggest producers of coffee: Brazil is the #1 coffee producer and Columbia is #2, while both Mexico and Guatemala are in the top ten. Indonesia, Vietnam and Ethiopia are also major producers in the top ten. Americans are likely more familiar with Columbia, as coffee from that country has been advertised here for decades. **

The latter part of the 1600s brought the Germans into the act, as the Turks besieged Vienna, then the capitol of the Old German Empire.*** When the siege was broken, the Turks left large quantities of supplies behind, including coffee beans. The coffee business soon took hold in Vienna and it spread to other German areas. Vienna is still known for its coffeehouses, where you pretty much need to take a class just to learn the various terms for coffee served in a variety of ways. I'd venture to say that any and all German and Austrian coffeehouses have my favorite, "Eiskaffee," or Ice Cream Coffee; cold coffee over vanilla ice cream in a tall glass, typically served with whipped cream and a cookie. If you order this, you get to cover a couple of your vices all in one order. What's not to like?

* Technically, the Turks, under the name, the Ottoman Empire, occupied a part of southeastern Europe in the Balkans, including the former city of Constantinople, which they eventually renamed Istanbul.

** For more see:  http://www.nationalgeographic.com/coffee/map.html

*** The proper name was, "The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation."     

WORD HISTORY:
Coffee-The ultimate origins of this word are disputed, but while I understand the desire to claim the origins of the word for this popular drink, I lean toward the word being derived from the old Ethiopian province of "Kaffa," where "supposedly" the plant grew wild and was first used for making a beverage. Trade contact likely brought Arabic speakers to borrow a form of the word as, "qahwa/qahwah." This then was borrowed by Turkish as "kahveh." The Venetians, avid traders, learned of the beverage from the Turks, giving Italian "caffe." This was borrowed into English as "coffee" in the early 1600s, again, undoubtedly the result of trade and the resulting desire for the beverage.

Allied Commanders of World War Two/LeClerc

"General Jacques LeClerc"

NOTE: For those unfamiliar with World War Two, French involvement in the war is a bit complex. In September 1939 France, along with Britain, declared war on Germany in response to Hitler's invasion of Poland two days prior. France surrendered to Germany in June 1940 after a successful German offensive and campaign in the spring of 1940. Germany occupied much of northern France, including Paris, as well as the Atlantic coastal areas. The remainder of France, termed "Vichy France," since the government was in the city of Vichy, was French-governed, but was "cooperative" with the Axis. France also kept her colonies and the military units in those colonies, and retained, as well, a limited military force within the French-governed part of France. The colonial military units played varying roles in the war. The French surrender in 1940 also brought about the establishment of what came to be called the "Free French," led by Charles DeGaulle.* These forces were formed from Frenchmen who had escaped from France to Britain in 1940, and also from those who lived outside of France, largely from the colonies. The aim of the "Free French" was to give France a military presence on the side of the Allies (as opposed to the pro-Axis French government), and to free France from German occupation. Free French military forces played an increasing role as the war progressed, and I have chosen General LeClerc to represent France in this segment on Allied commanders.

The man who came to be known as "General LeClerc" was born in northern France as Philippe François Marie de Hauteclocque (Hey, say that three times real fast. Ah, in fact, say that one time real fast.). He became a cavalry officer and served in French Morocco for a time. When World War Two broke out, he was a captain in a division that moved into Belgium to meet the German attack. He was wounded and taken to a hospital, but left and made his way to Spain and Portugal upon the French surrender. He then joined the call by Charles DeGaulle to join the Free French in England. At this time he chose an alias in the hopes of protecting his family in France from reprisals by the pro-Axis Vichy government, and it is by that name that he is best known: "Jacques Philippe LeClerc." DeGaulle dispatched LeClerc and a small group of Free French to the African colony of Chad to bring this colony into the Free French cause, which was successful. From Chad, Leclerc's group raided into the Italian colony of Libya, just to the north.** LeClerc used Chad as a base of operations and training area for his small, but expanding, force.

By December 1942, with Rommel's German-Italian forces in retreat after their defeat at the Battle of El Alamein, LeClerc's small force of about a reinforced regiment crossed into southern Libya, defeated the Italian garrison and marched northwards towards Tripoli, meeting up with British and Commonwealth forces there in late January 1943. Incorporating Free French forces already present with the British forces with his own, LeClerc's men fought against the Axis forces until their surrender in Tunisia in May 1943. He then went to Morocco to establish and train the French 2nd Armored Division (French: "2eme Division Blindee"). The division served under General Patton's 3rd Army in Normandy from August 1944 and fought its way to Paris, where LeClerc accepted the surrender of the city by the German commander, General Dietrich von Choltitz. The division helped pursue the German forces into the long disputed territory of Alsace,*** and the division ended the war near Hitler's mountain home in Bavaria near Berchtesgaden.

LeClerc was later sent to Indochina to take command of the French forces there opposing the Japanese, but the Japanese surrendered before any major operations were carried out by LeClerc's forces. The general was the French representative at the formal Japanese surrender. General LeClerc was killed in an airplane crash in Algeria in 1947. He was made a "Marshal of France" posthumously in 1952.

* For some biographical info about DeGaulle, see my article: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2011/11/allied-leaders-of-world-war-iide-gaulle.html

**Chad, now an independent nation, is both French and Arabic speaking. LeClerc's Free French unit raided into Libya, as the Free French position was that the French surrender in June 1940 was not valid, and that the war continued; in this case, against Italy.

*** Alsace has been traded back and forth between Germany and France several times, just within the last one hundred years.

WORD HISTORY:
Cork-Certain aspects of the history of this word are a bit sketchy, but it seems to go back to Indo European "perkwu," which meant "oak." This gave Latin "quercus," with the same meaning. Arabic dialect was taken to Spain by the Moors, who conquered a large part of Spain, and a form of the word was taken up in this Arabic dialect as "al-qurq." Spanish took the Arabic form as "alcorque," for the "cork used in soles for shoes." German ("Kork"), Low German ("korck"), or Dutch ("kurk") borrowed the word from Spanish, likely through trade contact. English then borrowed the word from one of those sources as "kork" in the early 1200s. The verb form was derived from the noun in the1500s. By the way, German differentiates between "Kork," which means "the bark material used in various products," and "Korken," which means "a bottle-stopper made from the material."

Allied Leaders of World War Two/Roosevelt, Part 5

"FDR As War Leader/Part 3"

Roosevelt wanted to help Britain very much, and he developed a close relationship with Prime Minister Winston Churchill, whose mother had been an American. In June 1941, Hitler launched an invasion of the Soviet Union, his former ally. When Japan attacked the American naval forces at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and America declared war on Japan, Hitler and Mussolini did both Churchill and Roosevelt a favor, of sorts, by declaring war on the United States a few days later.* Now American forces could be deployed directly to Britain. The decision was made to give more weight to pursuing the war against Hitler, as he was the primary threat to Britain, but major American forces were initially deployed in the Pacific to halt the expansion of Japan.** The already accelerating American economy shifted into high gear, and with millions of men (and some women) entering into the armed forces, unemployment plunged, albeit at the cost of high budget deficits, which exceeded 100% of GDP.***

In what became a highly controversial decision, Roosevelt signed an "executive order" which led to the relocation and internment in special camps of more than a hundred thousand people of Japanese ancestry, many of them natural-born citizens of the United States. About fifteen thousand people of German and Italian ancestry were also held, as were a very few people with ancestry tied to other Axis nations.

Roosevelt met with other top Allied leaders on several occasions during the war to discuss strategy, including the landing of Allied troops in western Europe, and post-war policies, with his most controversial meeting coming in early 1945 in the Soviet city of Yalta, where Roosevelt was seen by many as capitulating to Soviet dictator, Joseph Stalin over postwar territories in eastern Europe. (See the individual articles on Stalin, Churchill and DeGaulle in this series for more info on Allied relationships during the war.) Roosevelt reluctantly stood for re-election in 1944, as his health was in decline. He defeated Republican Thomas Dewey (from New York), but his margin of victory shrunk considerably from his previous three elections. After returning from Yalta and visits with other world leaders in 1945, Roosevelt went to his vacation home in Georgia. On April 12 he suffered an apparent cerebral hemorrhage and died. The nation mourned collectively. The war in Europe ended just a few weeks later. Vice president Harry Truman assumed the presidency.

* I dare say, most Americans are undoubtedly unaware of this, but America did NOT declare war on Germany and Italy because of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Neither Hitler nor Mussolini seemed to grasp the fact of American power, and that America's entry into the war against them, barring a dramatic change in circumstances, sealed their fate.

** Remember, while Americans didn't like Hitler, they were far more furious over the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, and Roosevelt was both militarily and politically committed to halt Japan, early on.

*** The deficits declined considerably after the war.

WORD HISTORY:
Glow-The ancient history of this word is uncertain, but it "may" go back to Indo European "ghel/ghluo," which, if true, had the idea of "shine." Whether this is the source or not, Old Germanic had "gloanan," which meant "to shine." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "glowan," which meant "shine brightly, glow." Later this became "glouen," before the modern version. The noun form developed from the verb in the 1400s. Common throughout the other Germanic languages: West Frisian has "gloeie," Dutch has "gloeien," German has "glühen," Low German Saxon has "glöhn," Icelandic has "glóa," Norwegian, Swedish and Danish all have "glo."

Allied Leaders of World War Two/Roosevelt, Part 4

"FDR As War Leader/Part 2"

(See the previous article in this series about FDR and Asia) Roosevelt remained focused on combating the devastating effects of the Great Depression in the mid to late 1930s,* even though both Hitler and Mussolini were making noises; Hitler in Europe and Mussolini in eastern Africa. When a war between Britain, France, and Czechoslovakia against Germany seemed possible over German claims to German populated areas of Czechoslovakia, Roosevelt, while sympathetic to Hitler's opponents, remained determined to keep the U.S. out of such a war by saying the U.S. would be neutral. Once the crisis over Czechoslovakia passed, it didn't take Hitler long to turn up the heat on Poland, a nation on Germany's eastern frontier, against which many Germans held grievances over post World War One border adjustments.** While still wishing to remain officially neutral, Roosevelt desired to give material aid to Britain and France by the sale of weapons, especially aircraft.***

The German invasion of Poland and the resulting declaration of war on Germany by Britain and France put Roosevelt in a tough political spot. Overt American public opinion remained against U.S. military involvement in the European war, but FDR wanted to help the Allies as much as possible economically, including with weapons. The defeat of France so shocked Americans, that, coupled with an increasing fear of a world dominated by fascism, public opinion more and more favored Britain in its stand alone position against Hitler. While a strong anti-war sentiment remained, clearly the momentum had shifted enough for FDR and a number of cooperative Republicans to support an expansion of American military forces. Congress passed, and FDR signed, a bill implementing a peacetime "draft" in September 1940.**** The U.S. also gave Britain some old military vessels in exchange for bases in various British and Commonwealth territories. The major aid to Britain came in the Lend Lease Act, which literally gave Roosevelt the ability to "give" military supplies and weapons to Britain, with the durable weapons later to be returned to the U.S. (thus the "lend/lease" idea).***** After Hitler invaded the Soviet Union, the policy was extended to aid that nation against the Axis powers, too. Tanks, trucks, ships and planes were common Lend-Lease weapons supplied by the U.S.

Naturally, all of this did not sit well with Hitler and Mussolini, and Germany began to sink more and more transport ships bound for Britain, mainly by submarine (U-boat) attacks. The stage was set for a confrontation.

* Americans certainly seemed content to mind their own business, perhaps even more so because of the economic calamity. While America's intervention in World War One had definitely aided the Allies, America was not really seen by many as a true super power in those times. Just as began to happen circa 2005/06, as Americans began to feel more and more economically pinched, an increasing number of people began to lose interest in fighting foreign wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, with public sentiment shifting to bolstering the nation's floundering economy, a sentiment (shown in recent polls) that is still very prevalent as we enter 2012.

** See the following article for more information on the border changes between Germany and Poland: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2011/05/german-question-part-ninety-seven.html

*** The production of these aircraft also boosted the American economy, something not lost on the politically savvy FDR. He got to have it both ways; to keep out of direct political involvement in hot button European issues which could lead to war, but to get more Americans employed in decent paying industrial jobs, with payment coming, mainly, from France, and later Britain. (Note: The French orders were not completed when France surrendered to Germany in June 1940. The remainder of the order, plus more, were then shipped to Britain.)

**** According to the NY Times, the vote in the House of Representatives was 232 to 124 (186 Democrats and 46 Republicans FOR; (32 Democrats, 88 Republicans, and 4 other parties AGAINST). The Senate vote was 47 to 25 (40 Democrats and 7 Republicans FOR, and 13 Democrats, 10 Republicans, and 2 other parties AGAINST).

*****Most items were obviously not returned to the U.S., but some were later sold at huge discounts.

WORD HISTORY:
Ear (2)-This is the noun meaning "seed/grain bearing part of a plant;" commonly used in "ear of corn." This word goes back to Indo European "aek," a base with the meaning "sharp, pointed." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "ahkhaz," which retained the "sharp" notion, but also began to develop the meaning "spear shaped part of a grain plant" (the spear shape tied in with the idea of "sharp"). This gave Old English "ear," seemingly with a long "e," but the "ar" also pronounced. Later this became "ere," before the modern spelling and pronunciation. The other Germanic languages have: German "Ähre," Low German Saxon "Ohr," West Frisian "ier," Dutch "aar," Icelandic "eyra," Danish and Norwegian "aks" (notion the closeness to the ancient ancestor), and Swedish "Örat." For the history of "ear, the body part for hearing:" http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2010/12/ant-in-room.html

Allied Leaders of World War Two-Churchill, Part 2

"Churchill and World War Two"

Once Hitler's foreign policy took a much more aggressive turn, and Mussolini became more entangled with Hitler, Churchill dropped any favorable references to either dictator and stepped up his calls for British rearmament. As Hitler scored bloodless victories, even with British complicity in the ceding of the German-populated area of Czechoslovakia,* Churchill heavily criticized the Conservative Party government of Neville Chamberlain for its attempts to appease the German leader. When Hitler pushed matters further by invading Poland on September 1, 1939, Britain (and France) declared war on Germany just a couple of days later. Churchill was returned to his old position as First Lord of the Admiralty, but public dissatisfaction with the government led to Chamberlain's resignation and his replacement with Churchill as Prime Minister in May 1940. Just as Churchill was being elevated to Prime Minister, the largely inactive war on the continent suddenly changed, as all hell broke loose in France, Belgium and the Netherlands, with a German offensive that broke through French lines and trapped the British army, and many Belgian and French troops, along the Channel coast at Dunkirk. While the British successfully evacuated their troops to England, virtually all of their heavy equipment was left on the beaches at Dunkirk. France surrendered a few weeks later and Hitler stood as the master of much of Europe. England, now lacking heavy armaments, faced a possible successful invasion for the first time since 1066, when William, thereafter known as William the Conqueror, successfully defeated the English and King Harold at the Battle of Hastings. While some thought it best to negotiate an end to the war, Churchill was defiant and he rallied the British people with memorable words until their arms could be replenished: "I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat;" "This was their finest hour;" "We shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be... we shall never surrender." While highly sympathetic to the British efforts, the United States remained "officially" neutral, although it increasingly supplied Britain with various necessities and even war materials, bringing it into many diplomatic confrontations with Germany, and eventually, into military actions over German submarine warfare. When Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in late 1941, Hitler and Mussolini disregarded any common sense they had, and declared war on the United States, bringing Britain a very formidable ally.

Whether Hitler really ever intended to invade England, or if he really had the capability to do so,** has been the subject of historical debate, but his failure to secure air superiority over England during the "Battle of Britain" effectively eliminated the "immediate" threat of invasion. By the summer of 1941 Hitler had turned eastwards and invaded the Soviet Union, and in spite of his anti-communism, Churchill allied Britain with the Soviet Union. Meanwhile in North Africa, the British and Commonwealth forces did battle with a mixed German and Italian force in the sandy and rough terrain of Libya and Egypt. By late October/early November 1942, Allied forces under Bernhard Montgomery inflicted a decisive defeat on the Axis forces under the command of famous German commander, Erwin Rommel. The Allies, including substantial American forces for the first time, then landed behind Rommel's retreating forces in French colonial areas of North Africa. All of this culminated in Axis defeat in North Africa by May 1943.

Next, Churchill and the end of the war.

* The region, known as the "Sudetenland," was given to Hitler by Britain and France at a special conference held in Munich in 1938, without the participation of Czechoslovakia, whose representatives were not even permitted to be in the room.

** An invasion would have required a large number of various landing craft capable of transporting men, artillery, tanks, trucks, supplies, etc. The Germans had a number of river barges available, but they were essentially untested in waters like the English Channel. Further, an invasion force needed naval protection, and the German navy was not all that large. My own opinion is, Hitler neither wanted to invade England, nor did he truly have the capability to do so at that time (summer/fall 1940). Besides, it didn't take him long to shift gears and begin planning what he really desired, the invasion of the Soviet Union.

WORD HISTORY:
Earl-The ancient origins of this word are uncertain, but Old Germanic had "erloz/erlaz," which meant "warrior," and later "chief, leader in war." This gave Anglo-Saxon (Old English) "eorl," with the same meaning, but later, probably under influence from its Old Norse relative "jarl," its meaning advanced to "nobleman," and later still it was used in England as the equivalent to a "count" in the nobility. The spelling next became "erl," before the modern version, and of course, it also became a fairly common male name. A number of its other Germanic relatives died out long ago, like for instance, Old High German "erl," but Icelandic, Danish and Norwegian still have "jarl," but how much it is used by any or all is unclear to me. Norway produces the popular "Jarlsberg" cheese, named after a district in Norway where it was first made.

Allied Leaders of World War II/de Gaulle

Charles de Gaulle was born near the French border with Belgium in northern France. He served in the army before World War One, and indeed was already an officer when the war started. Given high marks by his superiors, de Gaulle was wounded and then captured by the Germans in 1916. He spent the rest of the war as a prisoner. After the war, de Gaulle served with French military personnel in Poland, there to help train the Poles, who were then in a war with Soviet Russia. A writer and military thinker, de Gaulle favored mobile warfare, rather than the infantry-based static and trench warfare of the then recently concluded war.

When the German offensive in western Europe commenced in May 1940, de Gaulle's armored division launched a somewhat successful attack against the Germans and he was promoted to Brigadier General. He opposed the French surrender to Germany and wanted the war continued from French colonies in North Africa.* As France prepared to surrender, de Gaulle fled to Britain where he began forming what came to be known as the "Free French Forces" from other Frenchmen who had left France. He became noted for his radio broadcasts to the French people, urging them to resist the German occupation and the collaborationist French government at Vichy.** This brought a death sentence to de Gaulle from the French Vichy government, but it made him the leader of Frenchmen everywhere who wanted France free from Axis forces. As such, de Gaulle became noted for his conflict and "difficult behavior" with the British, and later the Americans, and the relationship between these "allies" was often "frosty," to put it mildly, as the British and the Americans didn't trust de Gaulle, and de Gaulle didn't trust the British and the Americans. After the Axis defeat in North Africa, De Gaulle moved his operations to (French) Algeria, where he saw himself as the legitimate leader of a French government in exile, to be continued as a temporary government in France, once parts of the country were liberated. This was something the Americans, especially, would not support. Things were so bad, de Gaulle even refused to broadcast by radio to France as the Allies prepared to launch the invasion to liberate France in June 1944.

The Allied invasion eventually succeeded, and a second invasion, in southern France, was launched in August 1944. It consisted of substantial French forces. With the Germans in retreat, fearful of a French communist takeover in Paris, and of German retaliation against the French capitol, de Gaulle wanted Paris freed by French troops, and the Allies acceded to his wishes. Paris was liberated on August 25. Since many French leaders had been associated with the Vichy government, de Gaulle was essentially seen by most French people as the obvious leader of a new government until the country could regain its footing. As the war approached its end, de Gaulle demanded that France be given a prominent role in shaping post-war Europe. The fact that the Soviet Union, Britain, and America had shouldered much of the war effort didn't seem to bother him in the least, and the relationship between the various Allies continued to be contentious.

During the time of German occupation, the French resistance forces had many communist elements,*** but once the war on French soil essentially ended, the resistance forces continued in existence, not only as a military presence, but as something of a political movement of the left. De Gaulle ordered the separate military aspect of the Resistance disbanded, with those wishing to maintain a military life having to join the actual French army. De Gaulle gave some positions in his new government to men from the Resistance, including a couple of communists, but he and men from the "Free French" basically dominated the top positions, leaving bitter feelings.

While not invited to the "Yalta Conference" in February 1945 by the "Big Three" Allied leaders (Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin), De Gaulle did win a French role, supported by Britain and the U.S., in the occupation of Germany during the conference, although Stalin insisted the new zone come from the British and American portions of Germany, and indeed the relatively small French zone was the region just over the border from France. Further, France was given a seat on the United Nations Security Council, an international organization that was just forming. Even these victories didn't soothe the angry feelings of the contentious Frenchman for having been left out of the conference in the first place.

When the war ended, de Gaulle faced a new problem, an elected Assembly. The power of the communists could no longer be denied, as they won more than a quarter of the vote, making them the largest party in multi-party France. Combined with the vote of other left of center parties, the left had garnered about 75% of the total vote, although de Gaulle was still the choice to head the government. His unwillingness to appoint communists to many positions within the government brought serious arguments, and the desire of the communists and others to cut military spending brought de Gaulle's resignation in early 1946, just two months after the election. De Gaulle remained out of office until 1958, but with France embroiled in many problems with her colonies, including a problem in Indochina, which brought American involvement and the subsequent Vietnam War, he was again chosen to lead the government. A few months later he was elected President of France. He remained as president until 1969, when he resigned, after years of contentiousness with Britain, the U.S. and others, which is beyond the scope of this article. He died in November 1970.

De Gaulle was certainly a "difficult" person, but he was a solid advocate for France, and he is fondly remembered as such by many of his countrymen. He ranks up there with the greatest French leaders.

* France controlled Tunisia, Algeria, and French Morocco, all in the western part of North Africa.

** Hitler took control of northern France, including Paris, and the French Atlantic coastline area, but permitted a collaborationist government to rule the remainder of France and her colonies. This collaborationist government ended in November 1942 when Hitler and Mussolini sent troops into the area after the Allies invaded the French North African colonies, which lay to the rear of Rommel's forces in Libya. The Germans occupied most of the collaborationist area, with Italy taking the area of the Riviera along the Mediterranean, an area of historical dispute between Italy and France. When Italy surrendered in September 1943, the Germans took control of the Riviera, too.

*** This isn't terribly surprising, as many resistance movements in Europe had large communist elements, or were even actually communist groups, like Tito's Partisans in Yugoslavia. As the war neared its end, these groups became political forces, or even provided the basis of communist governments in eastern Europe, where Stalin's Soviet Union dominated.

WORD HISTORY:
Chief/Chef-These are really the same word, but in English they have varied meanings, as well as the different spelling. "Chief' goes back to Indo European "kaput/khauput," which meant "head." This gave its Latin offspring "caput," with the same meaning, and then the word later "capum." Old French, a Latin-based language, inherited a form of the word as "chief" (the "ch" pronounced as "sh") which meant "leader of some entity, main person or position." This was borrowed into English during the 1200s. In French, the word later became "chef," still with the same meaning, and it later came to be used in the expression, "chef de cuisine," for "head of the cooking or of the kitchen." The shortened version, "chef," was borrowed into English in the 1820s for "head cook." German too borrowed the word "chef," and it generally carries the meaning of English "chief;" that is, "main, head, chief, boss."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Fifty-Seven

"Hitler & The German Question" Part Three

In the Eupen-Malmedy region, which had been annexed to Belgium from Germany after World War One, and then annexed back to Germany during World War Two, the area was returned to Belgium after Hitler's defeat, but over time, the German population was given equal political rights, including for the maintenance of their language.

The South Tirol (or Tyrol) was a hot button issue for decades. This region of the Alps was heavily German,* but with an Italian minority, which actually had majority status in certain southern areas of the region. It was given to Italy after World War One as sort of a payoff for Italy's having chosen the Allied side. It had been a part of the Austrian part of "Austria-Hungary," and the rest of Tirol, including famous Innsbruck, remained part of Austria after World War One. The Italians tried to "Italianize" the Germans in the South Tirol, and this brought about extreme dissatisfaction among the German population. Hitler and Mussolini came to an agreement about the time of Germany's invasion of Poland to let Germans of the South Tirol choose to remain in the region, but to become "Italians," with all of the resultant restrictions on German language and German culture that carried with it, or to emigrate to Germany (which then included Austria). More than 150,000 chose to "resettle" outside of Italy, but the war interfered with much of this resettlement, and only about half that number actually left Italy. The South Tirol remained a part of Italy after World War Two ended,** but with much German unrest, including serious incidents (people killed), for several decades. Finally the Italian government agreed to grant a degree of "autonomy" to the German region, and several years later another more expanded agreement gave even greater autonomy to the German population. The Germans of the South Tirol have maintained their German language (German is now recognized by the Italian government as an "official" language in the region) and German culture, but they have remained a part of Italy as an "autonomous region," and some of the Italian majority areas were detached from this political entity to avoid further conflict.

After the war, Luxembourg went back to being Luxembourg, a separate country. In Alsace-Lorraine,*** Hitler never formally announced the annexation of the regions to Germany after defeating France in 1940, but the areas were just taken over again, and standard German was reintroduced as the language taught in schools there. The regions reverted to France at the end of the war, and French was again made the official language, and standard German and the German dialects of these two regions have been in serious decline ever since.

As to Germany herself, Austria became independent, although it was divided into occupation zones, with the country gaining full independence in the mid 1950s. Germany was divided into four occupation zones, with the Soviet zone in eastern Germany eventually becoming a communist state, commonly known as "East Germany," but officially the "German Democratic Republic." The western zones were occupied by the British, Americans, and French, and became commonly known as "West Germany," but officially as the "Federal Republic of Germany." Germany became the center of possible major Cold War confrontation between the Soviet Union and its satellite nations in eastern Europe on one side and western Europe and the United States on the other. As communism lost its grip over eastern Europe in the late 1980s/early 1990s, Germany was reunited as a single nation, and the occupation officially ended. Whether occupation forces would have remained in Germany for such a long time if there hadn't been a "Cold War" is difficult to say, but I doubt it, as the costs would have probably been too great for the occupying nations, although I think it benefited the stability of the western areas, as unlike after World War One, when the Weimar Republic floundered around trying to establish democracy, the presence of foreign powers for so long after World War Two helped democracy take firm root during that time, and presently, Germany is a model democracy, as is Austria.

Germans born after the war are not responsible for what their parents or grandparents did during the Nazi regime, and increasingly, the more recent generations have little concept of those times, as the Nazi-era generation is fading from the scene. Quite a few of the Nazi-era Germans I've known over the years are quite ashamed of those times, but then again, I've known a few who were unrepentant. For a few decades after the war ended, there was a fear by many non-Germans that if Germany did reunite, Germans would seek to regain territories lost to other nations after World War Two, especially some areas lost to Poland, which had in fact been a sore spot for many Germans since the end of the war. Presently that has not happened, nor does it appear likely to happen any time soon, if ever. Germans have struggled to deal with their history during Hitler's rule, especially the murderous nature of his regime and the complicity of so many, but time is doing much to change attitudes. People like Sophie Scholl and Claus von Stauffenberg**** have become martyrs and heroes to younger generations of Germans for their willingness to oppose Hitler, and this seems to say, "the nightmare is over."

* Of course, it all depends upon where you draw the boundaries.

** While Mussolini was put back into power by the Germans in northern Italy, that government was obviously never recognized by the Allies; thus, Italy's switch to the Allied side in September 1943 helped Italy keep the South Tirol.

*** As noted in previous articles in this series, the struggle over these regions has gone on for centuries, but technically, this struggle has not been over both provinces in their entirety, but rather most of Alsace and about a quarter to a third of Lorraine, the Germans conceding the other areas as being French.

**** See Part 151 about the German Resistance.

WORD HISTORY:
Will-The noun form, meaning "determination (as in 'will power'), intended purpose or desire," goes back to Indo European "wel," with the meaning "wish, desire." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "wiljon," with the same basic meaning. This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "willa," with the meaning "self will or determination, desire." This then later became "wille" before the modern spelling. In the 1300s, the idea of "wish, determination" began to be applied to "a legal document expressing a deceased person's 'desires' for the division of his/her belongings," a meaning that also continues today. German has "Wille," Low German Saxon has "Will," Dutch has "wil," West Frisian "wolle," Swedish has "vilja," Norwegian and Danish have "vilje," all with the meaning of "desire, intention, will power," but not the legalistic "will," which seems to be confined to English.

The verb "will" seems to have been derived from the noun form of Old Germanic as "wiljan(an)," with the same basic meaning "desire, wish, intention to do." This gave Old English "willan" (also apparently "wyllan" in some dialects), with the same basic meaning. The "intention to do" meaning came to be used in future usage; thus, "I will go to the store." Later the word was spelled "willen" and "wollen," before the modern spelling. Extensively used in the other Germanic languages: German has "wollen" (just to show the similarity to English, conjugated as ich will=I will; du willst=you will; er,sie,es will=he, she, it will), Low German and Dutch have "willen," West Frisian "wolle," Danish and some Norwegian have "ville," Icelandic, some Norwegian and Swedish have "vilja."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Forty

"Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Two/B
"Hitler Rules Western Europe" Part Two: "More Territorial Adjustments"

With Germany in control of much of western Europe,* Hitler made border adjustments: the small Eupen-Malmedy region, ceded by Germany to Belgium after World War One, and with a substantial German percentage of the population, again became a part of Germany. Alsace-Lorraine (in French terminology, the departments of Bas-Rhin, Haut-Rhin, and Moselle), the centuries' long contested region along the Franco-German border, was annexed to Germany. It had last been ceded to France at the end of World War One. Luxembourg at first was simply occupied, and it wasn't annexed to Germany until 1942. Luxembourg had been a German state in the Old German Empire (Holy Roman Empire) and also later belonged to the German Confederation. It later became an independent entity in the late 1830s, as a "personal possession" of the king of the Netherlands, who was simultaneously "Grand Duke of Luxembourg;" however, it kept close economic ties with Germany by maintaining its membership in the German Customs Union ("Zollverein") until the end of World War One.

* Prior to the German offensive in western Europe, the Germans invaded both Denmark and Norway. There was little fighting in Denmark, which kept a "certain degree" of self government under the German occupying forces, and in fact, the Danish king remained in Denmark. German occupation policy in Denmark took a much stricter position from 1943 until the end of the war. There was no territorial adjustment with Denmark, although the German minority in North Schleswig wanted the area annexed to Germany. There was serious fighting in Norway, with the Allies also sending an expeditionary force, but in the end, the German military prevailed, and Norway fell under German occupation.

WORD HISTORY:
Set-There are two words in English with this spelling, so first I'll deal with the one that is related to "sit," which was covered in the previous article ("set," the noun, will be in the next article, as its history is totally different). Like its close relative "sit," it goes back to Indo European "sed," meaning "to sit." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "satjanan," which was the causative form of Old Germanic "sitjanan," the ancestor of "sit." "Causative" means just that, something that "causes or brings about an action," and "satjanan" meant "to place something, to fix something in place, make firm, to make or cause to sit." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "settan," with the same basic meanings. While primarily a verb, it can also be an adjective, "a set pattern," with the notion of a "fixed pattern," for instance. Later in English it became "setten," before the modern spelling. This is another common word in the other German languages, except Frisian: German has "setzen" (originally "sezzen"), and where English uses "Let's sit down," German uses "Setzen wir uns," literally, "Set ourselves," with the notion of "cause" obviously present. Low German Saxon has "setten," Dutch has "zetten," Icelandic has "setja," Swedish has "sätta," Danish has "sætte," and Norwegian has "sette."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Thirty-Nine

"Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Two/A
"Hitler Rules Western Europe" Part One: "France Falls"


These articles will not deal with all of the battles and details of World War Two, but rather they will be more of a general overview of events, with perhaps a little more detail on some subjects. There are literally tons of material on World War Two available, so use your local library's resources if particular events are of interest to you. There is plenty of information online, too.

The "Sitzkrieg" ("Sitting War," see "Word History" below) continued in western Europe throughout the fall and winter of 1939-1940.* By the spring of 1940, the German military, now with its forces transferred from Poland to western Germany, was ready to go on the offensive. The Maginot Line was a formidable barrier, so the Germans planned to go around it. The French and their British allies weren't stupid, and they knew Hitler, like Kaiser Wilhelm II before him, would choose to violate Belgium's neutrality (and probably Luxembourg's, too) with the idea of pushing into northern France via that area. The Allies stationed strong forces near the Franco-Belgian border, and these forces were prepared to enter Belgium to meet and halt the German offensive there.

The Germans kept their "West Wall" defenses (known as the "Siegfried Line" to many western Europeans and Americans) manned by scaled down forces, while the bulk of their "striking army" prepared to invade through Belgium, Luxembourg, and, unlike during World War One, through the Netherlands. The Germans weren't stupid either, and they knew the Allies would cross into Belgium once German forces invaded that country to try to defeat them there; thus sparing northern France the destruction it experienced in World War One. The thing about the German plan was, they WANTED the Allies to enter Belgium in force. Here's why: On May 10, 1940, the German offensive started against Belgium and the Netherlands. The Allies moved northward out of France into Belgium to meet the attack. The Germans then, in a stunning bit of strategy, sent strong armored and motorized forces through southeastern Belgium and Luxembourg, through the heavily wooded and rugged terrain of an area known as the Ardennes. The French border area opposite this area had been left relatively lightly defended, as the Ardennes was considered by the Allies to be impassable for heavy German forces. The Germans proved otherwise, and they broke through the French forces stationed around the city of Sedan and headed for the northern French coast. Once there, the Allies, still fighting German forces in Belgium, were cut off. It was a disaster of the worst kind, with British, French and some Belgian forces trapped around the city of Dunkirk. The British people rallied to the cause, sending every ship or boat they had available across the Channel to help evacuate the surrounded army. Many lost their lives, but an army of more than 300,000 was ferried to safety in Britain, albeit without their heavy weapons.

The handwriting was on the wall, but France fought on for a few more weeks.** The French signed an armistice on June 22 in the same railway car, on the same spot, used to get the German signature on the armistice ending World War One. Hitler now ruled much of western Europe.

* Just a note: In November of 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Finland. While the Soviets had a commanding superiority in men and equipment over Finland, the gallant Finns gave the Soviets an embarrassing tussle. Eventually the Finns could not hold on against such overwhelming force and a treaty was signed between the two countries, with the Soviet Union taking territory from Finland. This served to move Finland closer to a potential powerful ally, Hitler's Germany.

** On June 10, exactly one month after the German offensive started, Mussolini, fearful the war would end before he got into it; thus thwarting any Italian claim to territory in southern France (part of the "Riviera" had been disputed between France and Italy for quite some time), declared war on France and Britain. The relatively small French force on the Italian border gave the Italians all they could handle, and the Italian army gained very little ground.

WORD HISTORY:
Sit-This common verb goes back to Indo European "sed," with the meaning "to sit." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "sitjanan," with the same meaning. From this came Anglo-Saxon (Old English) "sittan," meaning "to sit, to be seated, to possess or occupy," which later became "sitten," before the shortened modern spelling and over time, it added the meanings "to be inactive, to be lazy, the act of a legislative body in session, to have a position of judgment over someone or something, to not get involved in some undertaking." Common in the other Germanic languages: German has "sitzen" (originally "sizzen"), Low German Saxon "sitten," Frisian "sitte," Dutch "zitten," Swedish sitta, Icelandic sitja, Danish sidde, Norwegian "sitte."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Thirty-Seven

"Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part One/C
"War Comes To Europe" Part Three

So on September 3, 1939 Hitler had put Germany into another two-front war, but the British and French did not take advantage of this German predicament. The British sent troops to the Continent and the French sat in what they considered to be the relative safety of the Maginot Line.* The problem was, the French were still living in the World War One era, expecting another bloody war in the trenches and forts. Opposite the French positions, the Germans held the weakly defended "Siegfried Line" (actually called the "West Wall" by the Germans). It too had bunkers and barricades and such, although nowhere nearly as elaborate as the French Maginot Line. If only the Allies had tried a major attack; what might have happened???

While Poland was dying, the French and British forces essentially sat idly by in their fortifications along Germany's western border. There were no major Allied offensives to force the Germans to defend themselves, and some in the press, as a play on the term "Blitzkrieg;" that is, "lightning war,** called the rather relaxed affair the "Sitzkrieg," or "sitting war," while others termed it the "phony war." Whatever you want to call it, nothing was really done to help Poland.

In the meantime, German forces quickly penetrated Polish positions and the capital, Warsaw, was mercilessly bombed. While the Allies fiddled, the Soviet Union sent troops into eastern Poland in mid September to claim the territories they wanted from the disintegrating Polish nation. It was all part of the pact signed between Germany and the Soviet Union on August 23. By the end of September the Germans took Warsaw and Poland was defeated, although there were pockets of Polish resistance through the first week of October. Even Slovakia got in on the act, sending in troops to take a slice of Polish territory.

* The Maginot Line (French: "Ligne Maginot") was a series of fortifications constructed by the French during the 1930s along their border with Germany. For its time, it was really a marvel, with all sorts of bunkers, armor protected artillery positions, underground passages and storage areas, and even a special rail system to send men and supplies to various positions in the line. Most, if not all, of the major parts of the fortifications had electricity provided by buried cables.

** "Blitzkrieg" came to be a term applied to the German developed tactics of quick air strikes against enemy positions, command and control positions, rail lines and supply infrastructure, followed by fast thrusts by mobile units of tanks, motorized artillery, and motorized infantry to break through enemy positions to get into the rear areas of their enemy, bypassing strong points, which were left to be taken by the regular infantry moving up behind the faster moving advance units. The whole point was for forces to "strike like lightning," and to never let the enemy know what hit them.

WORD HISTORY:
Slaughter-This word goes back to Indo European "slak," which had the idea of "hit, strike." This gave Old Germanic "slahto/slahtor," which continued the "hit" meaning, but also the idea of "hitting" produced the additional meaning "kill," and indeed, "slaughter" is closely related to "slay." Old English had various forms of the word, including "sleaht," which meant "kill in combat," but these forms died out (no pun intended) or merged with Old Norse "slahtr" which was borrowed into English in the 1200s, with the meaning "killing of animals for food," but then also the "killing of people, especially in large numbers in battle" developed as a secondary meaning. The verb form developed from the noun in the first half of the 1500s. "Slaughter" has many relatives in the other Germanic languages: German has "schlachten," a verb form, but also "Schlachter" and "Schlächter," meaning "butcher," and "Schlächterei," meaning "butcher's shop," but also "butchery." German also derives its word for "battle" from the same word, which is "Schlacht," and for those studying German, it is feminine; thus, "die Schlacht." Low German Saxon has "Slachter," Dutch has "Slachting," Frisian "slachter," Icelandic has "slátrun," Swedish has "slakt," Norwegian has "slakting," and Danish has "slagtning;" all of these having to do with "slaughter, butchering."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Thirty-Six

"Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part One/B
"War Comes To Europe" Part Two

Many historians view September 1, 1939 as the beginning of World War Two, but it is important to remember, Japan and China had been fighting off and on since the early 1930s, and Japan and its satellite entity, Manchukuo (a part of Manchuria), also came into conflict with the Soviet Union in that area. In 1939, Germany and Japan were "loosely" connected by an anti-Communism pact, which they had signed in the latter part of 1936, and it wasn't until 1940 that they became true military allies. Also in 1936, Germany and Italy had signed a "friendship pact," known commonly as "the Rome-Berlin Axis," which later gave the two countries and their other allies the name, "the Axis powers." This pact was expanded in May 1939 as much more of a military alliance as "the Pact of Steel" between Germany and Italy.

With the invasion of Poland by Germany, and with both Britain and France allied to Poland, you might think there would have been a swift declaration of war on Germany by Britain and France, but that was not the case. While the public, many legislative members, and some cabinet members in both countries wanted an immediate declaration of war on Germany, the more prominent government leaders hesitated, and instead issued a warning to Hitler, that he must withdraw his military forces from Poland before any large-scale talks on Danzig or the Polish Corridor could begin. In an attempt to add weight to the statement and to placate the public and certain government members, they included in the "warning," that if Germany did not withdraw her forces from Poland, Britain and France would honor their alliances with Poland, with the implication being, they would declare war on Germany. There was some diplomatic activity attempted through Hermann Göring, who, while close with Hitler, and indeed his designated successor,* was opposed to the invasion of Poland, because of the possible war with Britain and France. Neville Chamberlain, the British Prime Minister, now criticized even by members of his own political party for lack of a declaration of war, faced the reality that Hitler had to be confronted militarily. Laying Göring's diplomatic effort aside, Chamberlain issued a direct ultimatum to Hitler to begin to withdraw German forces from Poland, or Britain would declare war within a couple of hours. No answer was received from Hitler, and Chamberlain announced that Britain was at war with Germany. France followed with a similar ultimatum and the consequent announcement of war. A general European war had erupted; it was September 3, 1939.

The irony to all of this was, Britain and France had chosen NOT to help Czechoslovakia over a matter far more egregious, the German occupation of March 1939. They now went to war over what they themselves felt was a justified German grievance, the city of Danzig.

In Germany, Hitler was a bit stunned that the "little worms"** had taken a stand against him. Göring said, "If we lose this war, then may heaven be merciful to us."***

* Hitler formally named Göring as his successor in his speech to the Reichstag on September 1,  1939 when he said: "Should something happen to me in this struggle, then my first successor will be party comrade Göring" (German: "Sollte mir in diesem Kampf etwas zustoßen, dann ist mein erster Nachfolger Parteigenosse Göring.")

** About a week before the attack on Poland, Hitler said about the British and French leaders, "Our enemies are 'little worms.' I saw them in Munich," in reference to the Munich Conference which began the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia. ("Unsere Gegner sind kleine Würmchen. I sah sie in München.")

*** "Wenn wir diesen Krieg verlieren, dann möge uns der Himmel gnädig sein."

WORD HISTORY:
Panzer-This word, borrowed from German, came into usage in English during the World War Two era, and it has been used in reference to German tanks ever since, including in books, on television and in movies. The ultimate origin of its ancestor is unknown. It goes back to Latin "panticem," which meant "belly, stomach," whose nominative form was "pantex." This was inherited by Old French, a Latin-based language, as "pance," which then spawned "panciere," which meant "armor or mail^ to protect the abdominal area." German borrowed the word (1200s or 1300s???) as "panzier," and later, in its modern spelling as "Panzer," the notion of "armor" remained, although the "stomach, belly" idea died out in German. "Technically" it does not mean "tank," although usage in both German and English has certainly made it synonymous with "tank," but the actual German word for tank is "Panzerkampfwagen;" German being known for stringing words together as one "super word," and it means, "armor(ed) battle wagon/vehicle." Now you know why they just say "Panzer." For those studying German, it is masculine; thus, "der Panzer."

^ Mail, not the "letter" kind, but rather "armor, chain mesh," used by the knights of old.