Austro-German Boiled Beef: Tafelspitz

This dish has a strong tie to Vienna, but it is well known in other parts of Austria and Germany, especially in Bavaria. In German, "Tafelspitz" literally means "table tip or point," presumably because of its shape (see photos below). "Spitz" means "point or tip" in German, and it is closely related to English "spit," not the saliva meaning, but rather, "a pointed rod used for cooking meat;" that is, a type of "skewer." While in more recent times some may use various cuts of beef, the dish seemingly originated by the use of what in the U.S. is called a tri-tip, or triangle roast, which is still the traditional choice for this dish; in fact, the name "Tafelspitz" is also used for that specific cut of beef in German, although, as in just about all things German having to do with food, there are regional names like, "Hüferschwanz," "Hiefelschwanzl," "Pastorenstück." Because the slow simmering of the beef drains much of the flavor from the vegetables, when the meat is done, it is best to strain the broth and discard the vegetables, then cook fresh vegetables in the broth for serving with the beef. Celeriac (celery root) is pretty easily found these days in many supermarkets or produce shops, or you can use parsnips.

Ingredients:

2 1/2 pound beef tri-tip/top round roast
3 large carrots, divided use
1 onion (baseball size)
1 celery root (celeriac, baseball size), peeled, or 1 or 2 parsnips, peeled
2 stalks celery (with leaves)
(optional) beef marrow bones
10 peppercorns, cracked
1 tablespoon salt (or to taste)

Apple/Horseradish Salad
2 apples, peeled and cored
2 tablespoons lemon juice
1/2 tablespoon sugar (more if needed)
2 to 3 tablespoons horseradish (freshly grated or from a jar, but drained)
1/4 teaspoon salt

Place the roast into a pot, cover it with water, and add one of the carrots (washed, but it needn't be peeled). Halve the onion and peel one of the halves, then roughly chop it and add it to the pot. Add the other onion half, skin on, to the pot, along with the celery stalks (each cut into 3 pieces). If you have a couple of marrow bones, add them to the pot and toss in the peppercorns, but do not add salt at this time. Bring the water to a boil, then lower the heat to maintain a gentle simmer for about 2 to 2 1/2 hours, or until the meat is tender. Remove the meat and strain the broth into another pan or large bowl. Remove the marrow bones, if using, from the strained matter, you can then discard the rest of the strained matter. Return the broth to the pot and add the remaining 2 carrots, but this time you can peel them and slice them into multiple pieces. Peel the celery root or parsnips and cut them into multiple pieces also, then add them to the pot, along with the salt. Bring the broth to a boil again and cook the vegetables until they are tender. For the apple/horseradish: grate the peeled and cored apples into a bowl (sprinkle on some lemon juice as you grate the apples; otherwise, the grated apples will begin to turn brown). When the apples are grated, add any remaining lemon juice, the sugar, the salt and the horseradish, then mix everything together well. Horseradish can lose its "zip" if it sets too long, so it's best to grate it fresh and serve the apple/horseradish alongside the meat immediately.

Slice the meat rather thinly across the grain and serve with the just cooked vegetables and the apple/horseradish salad; additionally, fried potatoes, called "Bratkartoffeln" in German, are a frequent side dish for "Tafelspitz."    

WORD HISTORY:
Claw-This word is related to "clay" and to "cleave" (the verb meaning, "to stick or cling to"), both words from the Germanic roots of English, and to "glue," a Latin-derived word borrowed by English through French. It goes back to Indo European "gleuh/gleyh," which had the notion of "stick together, adhere," with the further sense, "form into a ball." This gave Old Germanic "klawo," with the meaning, "animal foot forming a round shape or appearing to form a round shape." This gave Old English "clea," meaning "claw, nail of a claw," and then the form "clawu," with the same meanings. This then became "clawe/claue," before the modern form. Relatives in the other Germanic languages: German has "Klaue," meaning, "claw," but also secondarily, "hoof," perhaps from the split in a hoof resembling a claw? Low German "Klau" (claw), West Frisian "klau" (claw), Dutch "klauw" (claw), Swedish, Danish, Norwegian "klo" (claw), Icelandic "kló" (claw). The verb form seems to have come from an Old Germanic form like "klaujanan" (?), which gave Old English "clawian" (to claw or scratch), with relative German "klauen" having somewhat more extensive meanings like, "to steal," in the sense, 'to snatch away, to swipe,' seemingly from the notion of birds of prey swooping down and using their claws to snatch up small animals or birds, but also meaning simply, "to seize, to grab," and further, "to crawl (like a crab)," seemingly from the idea of the crab having claws and their moving like a crawl. Verb forms in Low German (klouwen) and Dutch (clouwen) are now archaic. 

"The Cardinal," Otto Preminger Directed

I first saw this movie many years ago on television. I believe it was in the late 1960s, although the film was only released in 1963. The film was directed by Otto Preminger, often considered one of the greatest directors of all time, although his personality was highly volatile, and he was known for being "difficult." Preminger did often get results, as several of the stars he directed received Academy Award nominations for their performances in the films he directed, including this film, "The Cardinal, as John Huston, better known for his own movie directing, than for acting, received an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor. Otto Preminger will certainly be known to you, if you've seen the movie, "Stalag 17, as he played the role of the German prison camp commandant. Never fear, Preminger was no Nazi, as he was Jewish, and he came to the United States in the 1930s, after Hitler had taken power in Germany. Earlier he lived primarily in Vienna. Preminger took on controversial subjects in some of his films, and he battled the television industry to keep his films intact, and not be cut to pieces to fit into time slots and for commercials.

The movie, based on the book of the same title by Henry Morton Robinson, which itself was loosely based on the life of Francis Cardinal Spellman, is about the rise of a young Catholic priest from Boston, Stephen Fermoyle, played by Tom Tryon, beginning in the era around World War One, and his eventual rise to the position of cardinal a couple of decades later. The movie begins with the preliminary ceremony for his appointment as cardinal, and as the necessary documents are read in Latin, Fermoyle stands and looks back on his life, and it is in this way that the film is presented. Remember he understood Latin and yet he drifted off to other matters. How about the people in attendance, likely many, who didn't understand Latin? Where do you think their minds were? *

Stephen's life reflects the stresses and strains in Catholicism, the religious doctrine, and the way every day Catholics really live their lives. Stephen's sister, Mona, played by Carol Lynley, wants to marry, but her boyfriend, Benny Rampell, played by John Saxon, is Jewish and Stephen wants the young man to convert, or at least to agree that any children will be brought up as Catholics. At first the young man agrees to being able to be persuaded, but when he and his parents are made to feel uneasy about not being Catholic and Irish, he decides not to convert. Mona goes to her brother for advice, which turns out to be the Catholic religious answer, to give up the boyfriend. Mona leaves home and, months later, she is found, in labor, and taken to a hospital, where the doctor tells Stephen that the baby will have to die to save his sister, but Stephen cannot give his consent and go against Catholic doctrine, so his sister dies, but the baby lives. This is a staggering blow to the young priest, as this is now religious belief actually having to be put into practice.

Cardinal Glennon, played by John Huston, sees Stephen as ambitious and in need of some humility, so he sends him to a very poor parish to assist and learn from Father Ned, played by Burgess Meredith. Father Ned lives a very simple life, and he is beloved by his parishioners, but the priest is seriously ill, something Stephen finally takes to Glennon, who goes off to visit his long time friend Father Ned. When the dying priest asks that he appoint Stephen as his successor, Cardinal Glennon thanks him for the suggestion, giving Father Ned the impression that's what will happen, but outside of the room, the cardinal tells Stephen he has other plans for him to become his secretary, not become the parish priest.

The pope dies (1922) and Stephen travels with Cardinal Glennon to Rome, where Glennon convinces the new pope to give Stephen a position in the Vatican, but Stephen, badly troubled by his priesthood so far, does not want the position, causing Glennon to give Stephen a leave of absence of two years for the priest to see what he wants to do. Stephen goes to Vienna (he speaks German) to teach English. He meets a young woman, Annemarie, played by Romy Schneider, and the two fall for each other, but he tells her he is a priest, and eventually, Stephen decides to stay with the priesthood.

Stephen returns to Rome, where he takes a position in the Vatican. In 1934 a black American priest from Georgia, Father Gillis, played by Ossie Davis, comes to Rome to seek help, as the only Catholic school in his area will not admit black Catholic students, and further, his church in Georgia has been burned down by the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). Stephen takes the priest to see Cardinal Giacobbi, a highly conservative close associate of the pope, but instead of helping him, Giacobbi essentially scolds Father Gillis when the priest tells him members of his congregation protested the discrimination of the school by holding a protest with signs, an act said by Giacobbi to be a method that is "inflammatory." This brings a statement from another cardinal present, played by Raf Vallone, "I'm not sure we can afford to use methods that tend to be glacial," but Giacobbi is generally unsympathetic, although Stephen tries to get the cardinal to understand the racism in the United States. The priest leaves with no help for the Catholic school racial discrimination. Stephen goes to Georgia to see what he can do and to gather information he can take back to the Vatican. He is met with hostility and both he and Father Gillis are severely beaten (even with a whip) by a group of the KKK. Standing on principle about racial justice in the American South can be very dangerous.** (Note: When this film was released in 1963, racial tensions in the U.S. were climbing.)

Finally, Hitler's influence is expanding in Europe, and heavily Catholic Austria has become a part of Germany. Stephen is sent to close the papal nuncio in Vienna (Austria is no longer a separate country), and to take a message to the head of the Catholic Church in Austria, Cardinal Innitzer, played by Josef Meinrad, to tone down his public support of Hitler and the Nazis. The cardinal seems detached from the reality of the situation, believing himself to have been non political in statements supporting Austria joining Germany. He curries favor with leading Nazis, but reality strikes when Hitler goes back on earlier promises about Catholicism in his native land. Then Nazi thugs vandalize Catholic properties. Stephen has to flee. Just as in Georgia, the same is true in Vienna, when you oppose hate and evil, be prepared for great difficulties, even possible death.

The film ends with Stephen addressing the people assembled, including his mother and other family members who traveled to Rome for the ceremonies of Stephen's becoming a cardinal.

* Originally the language of Christianity was Aramaic, a Semitic language of the Middle East akin to Hebrew (the language of the Old Testament) and Arabic. Then Christianity began to spread in the eastern Mediterranean area, a region where Greek was heavily used, making Greek a common part of early Christianity. As the religion became more popular further west in the Mediterranean and in the Roman Empire, Latin, the language of the Romans, began to be used more and more, until it became the acknowledged language by many in Christianity, with writings and masses often being in Latin. This didn't just happen one day, but rather it took place over a period from about 300, 400 and 500 AD. The interesting thing is, and it shows how religion can get out of step with, and fear, change, Latin itself was changing dramatically during these times and beyond, as it, or more specifically its dialects, were morphing into separate languages: Italian (right in what had become the center of Christianity and Latin... Rome), Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Romansh, French and others too, but it took time for these languages to fully emerge as distinct entities. Meanwhile, Latin was the language of Christianity, with writings and religious services conducted in Latin up until the 1960s, even though most parishioners did not understand much, if not most, of what was said. Of course, there were those little things called "the Great Schism" and "the Reformation," that caused a major split in Christianity, and in the use of other languages as part of segments of Christianity, and since the 1960s, although better late than never, Roman Catholicism has permitted the use of national and local languages, although a small percentage of Latin masses have continued. Perhaps there will be a movement to, "make Latin great again."

** While the details in the movie are vague, some white men have been arrested and charged in the church arson in Georgia. Father Gillis is scheduled to testify, but many of the white residents of the town are in an uproar, prompting the priest's superior, Monsignor Whittle, played by Chill Wills, to order Gillis not to testify and to drop the complaint. Stephen challenges the monsignor, who disparagingly uses the term "Yankee," in reference to Stephen, but then finds out that Stephen is from the Vatican. When Stephen returns to Rome and Cardinal Giacobbi, who feels Stephen has gotten the Church into controversy (heaven forbid! ... hey, what a pun!), Stephen explains there was a conviction in the case, and while not for arson, but for disorderly conduct, it was the first time in Georgia that white men had been convicted for anything based upon the testimony of a black witness (the film uses the term, "Negro," long seen by American white society, and even by many people of black society, as the proper term for black people, especially in those times, mid 1930s in the film, but also still in the early 1960s, when the film was made and released). While it's firmly implied in the movie that Giacobbi is against Stephen being named a bishop, and that he will use the incident in Georgia to try to influence the pope in that direction, the pope makes Stephen a bishop; so a bit of hope for some change comes from the ordeal, both legally and religiously.             

Photo is from the 2005 Warner Home Video DVD.

WORD HISTORY:
Cardinal-The ultimate origin of this word are unknown, but it goes back to Latin "cardo," which meant, "hinge of a door," and from this developed the notion of, "important, prime," from the idea of "a matter or a person upon which others are dependent, upon which things turn or hinge," and this gave Latin the adjective "cardinalis." The Christian church initially applied the noun form to a clergyman of a church; thus, "the prime person, or person of importance for that church." Later, Christians elevated the meaning to a bishop who became, "a prince of the Church," as an elector of the pope. English borrowed the noun from Latin circa 1100, and it borrowed the adjective from French, a Latin-based language, in the 1200s. The use as the name for a particular red and reddish brown bird began in the second half of the 1600s, from the comparison of the red attire for the religious cardinals.

Wiener Schnitzel, Fried Veal Cutlet

Wiener Schnitzel (pronounced as if, "vee-ner shnit-zel"), is a famous fried breaded veal dish. "Wiener" is simply the German word for "Viennese," and "Schnitzel" means cutlet of meat. The Austrians likely took the recipe from Italian "Veal Milanese," although some Austrians apparently dispute that, but for whatever reason, "Wiener Schnitzel," generally speaking, became far better known internationally than the Italian version. The Habsburg rulers of Austria also controlled large areas of northern Italy for quite some time. The dish spread throughout many of the other German states, and it is a staple on many restaurant menus throughout Austria and Germany to this day. Real Wiener Schnitzel is made with veal, but it can also be made from the far less expensive pork or turkey, but it is then referred to as "Schnitzel nach Wiener Art" (Schnitzel, Viennese style). Many years ago a German friend of mine told me that in Germany the dish is always referred to as "nach Wiener Art" (Viennese style) out of respect for the famous cutlet from Vienna. Whether that is true, I really don't know, but I've had the dish in Germany many times, and I do believe it was always on the menu as "Viennese style," so perhaps he was right. For those unaware, Vienna was long the de facto capital of the old German empire, until its dissolution in 1806. The German word "Schnitzel" is not just used for "Wiener Schnitzel," as there are a number of other dishes of meat cutlets in Germany and Austria, and in other German-speaking areas. I plan to be doing recipe articles on two or three more Schnitzel recipes shortly. While the recipe for Wiener Schnitzel is simple, the high cost of veal has always made it a bit of a luxury food or special occasion dish for many. Getting the schnitzel cooked properly is the main challenge, as the meat should only be breaded right before it is fried, as once cooked, the coating should be able to be easily pulled away from the cutlet, and the meat should be cooked through and tender. Controlling the temperature of the oil/butter is essential to keep the breading from burning or darkening too much if the oil is too high, but on the other hand, if the oil temperature is too low, the breading will absorb the oil and become greasy.

Ingredients:

4 thinly sliced 4 oz. veal steaks, pounded even thinner using a kitchen mallet
1 cup all purpose flour
2 tablespoons milk (I use evaporated milk, known as "canned milk," to some, but just regular milk is fine)
3 eggs, lightly beaten
1 1/4 cups breadcrumbs (regular finely ground bread crumbs is traditional)
1/2 teaspoon salt
3 tablespoons canola oil
3 tablespoons butter
lemon wedges

First, place some paper towels onto a platter or baking sheet. Heat your oven to no more than 200 degrees. As you fry the schnitzels, you will remove each to the platter to drain off any excess oil and to keep the schnitzels warm. Spread the flour onto a large plate, lightly beat the eggs and milk together in a shallow dish (one large enough to fit the individual pieces of schnitzel), and put the breadcrumbs into another large plate. The three dishes should be close to one another and also close to the stove. In a heavy duty skillet, heat the oil/butter mixture over medium heat for about 60 to 90 seconds. Meanwhile, lightly salt each cutlet (hey, a 1/2 teaspoon of salt isn't going to go too far). Dredge the first cutlet in the flour on both sides, shaking off any excess flour. Dip the cutlet into the egg, then into the breadcrumbs, making sure there is a coating on both sides. Gently shake off any excess breadcrumbs to minimize their falling off in the grease and smoking/burning. Put the schnitzel into the hot oil/butter and fry about a minute to a minute and a half per side, until nice and brown. Remove the schnitzel to the oven platter, then repeat the same process with each of the other three remaining schnitzels. When the last piece is finished, remove the platter from the oven, and serve each with a wedge of lemon, the juice of which is to be squeezed onto the schnitzels. In Germany, I believe they always served Wiener Schnitzel with fried potatoes ("home fries" to many Americans)* in the places I ordered it, but I could be wrong. Further a side salad was served.

* In German, "fried potatoes"= "Bratkartoffeln"

I had Wiener Schnitzel with fried potatoes (Bratkartoffeln) and a salad...

WORD HISTORY:
To/Too- This word traces back to Indo European "do" (long "o"), with the notion of "toward," with the further extension, "for the reason of." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "ta," with the same meanings. This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "to," still with the long 'o' sound, which later altered to the "u" sound that we still use today, but of course, the old spelling was retained (probably just to confuse people trying to learn English, hahaha!). The form "too," with the same "u" pronunciation, meaning "besides, in addition, also, more," was simply the same word, "to," with the notion, "further on (extending 'toward');" thus, "also, besides, in addition," and meaning "more" or "in excess," when used for emphasis. The spelling "to" was used until the 1500s, when the second "o" was added, differentiating the two words. Relatives in the other Germanic languages are confined to the West Germanic languages (English is West Germanic), as the North Germanic languages (Danish, Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, being the primary languages) use a form of English "til" (in "until") in the same way. German has "zu" (pronounced "tsoo," rhymes with "too"), Low German Saxon has "to," Dutch has both "tot" and "toe," ^ West Frisian has "ta."

^ Dutch "tot" means "to, at, until," while "toe" (pronounced similarly to English "to") means "to," in the sense, "the door is to;" that is, "shut, pulled to."

"The Third Man," One Of The Great Films

"The Third Man" is a British produced, although with assistance from American David O. Selznick, black and white suspense film set in Vienna after the end of World War Two. It is often seen on lists of the greatest films ever. The movie's music, played only on a zither, remained a popular song in the 1950s and 1960s. Most of the film was shot on location right in Vienna, with the rubble and devastation of the war still all around. The city was a hot spot for corruption, as people trying to survive the aftermath of the war would wheel and deal to get the necessities of life, or more. Vienna, like Berlin, was divided into occupation zones by the Allies, along with joint control by the victorious powers of the central city. Also like Berlin, Vienna became a center of espionage during the increasing tensions between "the Western Allies" and the Soviet Union.

The story centers around an American writer, Holly Martins, played by Joseph Cotten, who goes to Vienna to see his friend, Harry Lime, played by Orson Welles, only to learn that Lime had been hit and killed by a vehicle not long before Martins' arrival. British military authorities tell Martins that Lime is a ruthless con man involved in the theft of scare penicillin, having the antibiotic diluted and then sold on the black market. The dilution of the drug made it ineffective to treat many ailments, costing literally life and limb for many a person, including children. Martins only knows Harry Lime as a friend and he seeks to refute the charges against Lime by conducting his own investigation, along with help from Lime's girlfriend, Anna, played by Alida Valli, to whom Martins takes a liking. One witness tells Martins that there was "a third man" at the scene of Lime's death, something denied by other witnesses. It is tough to write much more about this film without giving away some of its twists and turns for those who have not seen the movie, so I will leave it here, except to say there are scenes which include the Wiener Riesenrad (Vienna Ferris Wheel) and, believe it or not, the Vienna sewer system. That last is a clue to the story. I think you will likely agree with many of the lists which include this film as one of the greatest ever. Oh... and after watching it, try getting the theme song out of your mind! If you've seen the movie before, it is well worth seeing again ... and again. The film won the Academy Award for Best Black and White Cinematography, and it was nominated for Best Director (Carol Reed) and Best Film Editing.

The photo is from the DVD from Korea (don't panic, it is in English. If you only speak Algonquin .... PANIC!!!)

WORD HISTORY:
At-This common word goes back to Indo European "ad," which meant "near, to, at." This gave Old Germanic "at," with the same meanings. This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "æt," which meant "to, toward, at." This later became "at," and it has remained such for many centuries. The other Germanic languages have: German once had "az," with the "z" pronounced "ts," but the word died out. Low German Saxon has "at," which means "when, as," but I'm not really sure if this is the same word in heritage, or if it is just another word that developed that spelling. Dutch also lacks a modern version, as does West Frisian, but the much diminished North Frisian dialect of Frisian has "et," meaning "at." Danish has "at," which means "to," Icelandic has "að," which means "to," and Swedish and Norwegian both have "åt," meaning "to, towards, of."

Coffee: "Grounds" For A Love Affair

This article was updated slightly on June 19, 2015.


Each day one hell of a lot of people get their day going with coffee. In fact, quite a number of people keep their day going with coffee. "Apparently" coffee plants grew wild in Kaffa, a province of Ethiopia (also known for a long time as "Abyssinia") and the locals began using the plant to make a drink around 1000 A.D., give or take a hundred years or so. People from the Arabian Peninsula got hold of some plants and began to make a regular business out of growing and making coffee, but when the Turks acquired some plants in the 1500s, they seem to have been the first to roast the berries from the plant, the "beans," which they then ground and boiled in water. Venice was a major trade center in Europe in those times, and the Venetian traders brought coffee home in the early 1600s. It wasn't long before the Venetians and other Italians opened a number of coffeehouses, the first in Europe.* Trade and diplomatic missions brought coffee to France in the mid 1600s, where the French opened "cafés," the French term for "coffeehouses." The mid 1600s also brought coffee to England, where literally hundreds of coffeehouses opened in a relatively short period of time. Of course it wasn't long before European colonists from several nations began toting coffee off to the New World, where it has flourished ever since, and several countries are among the world's biggest producers of coffee: Brazil is the #1 coffee producer and Columbia is #2, while both Mexico and Guatemala are in the top ten. Indonesia, Vietnam and Ethiopia are also major producers in the top ten. Americans are likely more familiar with Columbia, as coffee from that country has been advertised here for decades. **

The latter part of the 1600s brought the Germans into the act, as the Turks besieged Vienna, then the capitol of the Old German Empire.*** When the siege was broken, the Turks left large quantities of supplies behind, including coffee beans. The coffee business soon took hold in Vienna and it spread to other German areas. Vienna is still known for its coffeehouses, where you pretty much need to take a class just to learn the various terms for coffee served in a variety of ways. I'd venture to say that any and all German and Austrian coffeehouses have my favorite, "Eiskaffee," or Ice Cream Coffee; cold coffee over vanilla ice cream in a tall glass, typically served with whipped cream and a cookie. If you order this, you get to cover a couple of your vices all in one order. What's not to like?

* Technically, the Turks, under the name, the Ottoman Empire, occupied a part of southeastern Europe in the Balkans, including the former city of Constantinople, which they eventually renamed Istanbul.

** For more see:  http://www.nationalgeographic.com/coffee/map.html

*** The proper name was, "The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation."     

WORD HISTORY:
Coffee-The ultimate origins of this word are disputed, but while I understand the desire to claim the origins of the word for this popular drink, I lean toward the word being derived from the old Ethiopian province of "Kaffa," where "supposedly" the plant grew wild and was first used for making a beverage. Trade contact likely brought Arabic speakers to borrow a form of the word as, "qahwa/qahwah." This then was borrowed by Turkish as "kahveh." The Venetians, avid traders, learned of the beverage from the Turks, giving Italian "caffe." This was borrowed into English as "coffee" in the early 1600s, again, undoubtedly the result of trade and the resulting desire for the beverage.

I'll Have The Goulash

This was published in August 2012, more as a general article, but I added the actual recipe November 29, 2016.


I got into my cooking mode a couple of days ago, and I fixed two great dishes, which lasted for a couple of meals. I made "goulash" and bacon dumplings (German: "Speckknödel" *). There is some disagreement about the history and preparation of goulash, but it developed among Hungarian herders** who fixed a thick soup of beef, peppers, onions, chopped tomatoes,*** paprika (a Hungarian specialty), and perhaps some other items, especially caraway, but also garlic, potatoes, or carrots, and typically thickened with flour. Hungary was ruled for quite some time by the Habsburg dynasty, and later it gained a large degree of equality in an agreement in 1867, making the former Austro-German dominated Austrian Empire into a shared empire called Austria-Hungary, or the Austro-Hungarian Empire. With Vienna (German: "Wien") the capital city of the multi-ethnic empire, lots of different peoples and foods influenced the culture of the city, and the Viennese picked up goulash from the Hungarians, albeit with their own version,**** which made it into more of a real stew, rather than a thick soup. The stew became something of a Viennese specialty, typically accompanied by bread dumplings (German: "Semmelknödel"), a close cousin to the bacon dumplings I made.

Well, many years ago in Frankfurt, Germany, there was a little restaurant called "Servus" (pronounced "zair-voos"). The word is known throughout the German-speaking lands, but it is more typical in southern German lingo; that is, more so in Bavaria and especially in Austria, and it is used as either a greeting or farewell, depending upon circumstance; thus it means "hello" or "goodbye." Wow did "Servus" have good food! It was owned by a fairly young couple, and I went in so many times, the lady asked me why I had become such a good customer. Well, one of the reasons was the goulash, or "Gulasch," in German, and the other was "Zwetschgenknödel" (plum dumplings). Now, the standard German word for "plum" is "Pflaume," a close relative to the English form, as centuries ago Old Germanic borrowed a form from Latin, giving both English and German forms of the word. For the history of the words "plum" and "prune," see my article at this link:  http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2013/04/plum-pudding-and-plum-cake.html    However, many German dialects use forms of "Zwetsche"***** for "plum." There are numerous spellings and pronunciations, including "Quetsche" in much of Hessen, the German state where Frankfurt is located, and "Quetschkuche," or "plum cake," is common in that area.

Anyhow, the lady proceeded to tell me she was from Austria and that her husband was Hungarian. Alas, the old empire was recreated. When I asked her where she was from in Austria, she got a bit nervous, even saying I would have never heard of it. Finally she told me, and I certainly understood her anxiety about how I might react. She was from Braunau, a little town right across the border from the German state of Bavaria. In fact, during certain times in the past, the town had been part of Bavaria. So why was she so nervous? Because Braunau was the birthplace of Adolf Hitler. The full name is actually "Branau am Inn;" the "am Inn" meaning, "on the Inn (River)."

Germans, the ethnic group, and not just the specific nationality from Gerrmany, love dumplings, and they make them out of flour, potatoes, or even stale bread or rolls. They come in all shapes and sizes, sweet or savory, and with various added ingredients. "Speckknödel" are made from stale rolls, which are sliced and soaked in warm milk. Small strips of bacon and sausage (usually smoked) are lightly fried together and then added to the bread. Today most of us would pour off the fat before adding the meat to the bread, but that was not the case in the past, when bacon and sausage fat added flavor to the dumpling mixture, along with a substantial dose of cholesterol. A little salt and some parsley are mixed in, and egg and flour help to bind the dough, which is then rolled into dumplings somewhere about the size of ping pong balls or golf balls. A little coating of flour helps to keep the dumplings from falling apart. Ten to fifteen minutes in some salted, lightly boiling water and you're ready to go. Any leftovers can be sliced and fried lightly in butter for a snack or even served with eggs for breakfast, which is not uncommon. I don't waste anything, as the water will have residue from the cooked dumplings, giving you something on the order of a thick porridge.

Vienna-Style Goulash (Gulasch, Wiener Art) Recipe (this is my own version):

Typically this dish is cooked on the stove top, but I prefer to bake it at relatively low heat for a couple of hours. In the past, the beef would not have had the fat trimmed off of it.

2 pounds beef stewing meat (bite-sized pieces)
3 tablespoons of vegetable oil or sunflower oil
3 onions, chopped
3 tablespoons mild paprika (Hungarian, if you have it)
1 tablespoon hot paprika ("hot" paprika tends not to be terribly hot)
3 tablespoons tomato paste
1 teaspoon sugar (this helps to smooth out some of the acidity, use a little more, if needed)
2 cloves of garlic, minced
1 teaspoon dried marjoram (or you can substitute oregano)
1 bay leaf
1 teaspoon caraway seeds
1 teaspoon red wine vinegar (or cider vinegar)
1/4 cup beef stock (I suppose you could substitute beef bullion, but don't be surprised if the Viennese put a curse on you, where you hear 24 straight hours of waltz music)
1 or 2 teaspoons salt (your preference; I use seasoned salt)
1/2 teaspoon black pepper

I use a heavy duty pan with a lid to make goulash. I add the oil first, then I add all of the other ingredients, then I mix it all well. I bake it at 275 degrees (F) for an hour, then I stir it, then I turn the heat down to about 250 (F) and let it bake for another 90 minutes. Check to be sure the meat is tender, giving the meat as much time as it needs to bake. The relatively low heat isn't going to hurt it, and your patience will be greatly rewarded with a delicious goulash.
 
If you want the goulash very thick, as I do, mix 1 tablespoon flour with 2 tablespoons water, making sure the flour is well mixed in. Stir the mixture into the goulash near the very end of cooking, and return it to the oven for about 5 minutes. Since I fix my goulash in an oven safe pan, I simply put the pan on the stove (low heat) and add the flour/water mixture, stirring until it is thickened and the flour taste is cooked out, which only takes a couple of minutes. Remember to remove the bay leaf before serving. I must admit, on occasion over the years, I have used bullion instead of real beef stock and nothing ever happened to me ... Hey! What's that music? Do I hear a waltz?  

* Also called "Tiroler Speckknödel."

** The Hungarian word for "herder, herdsman," "gulyas," lies behind the word "goulash."

*** I once read a recipe for goulash by a lady whose Hungarian mother or grandmother, I now cannot remember which, was adamant that "real Hungarian goulash" did NOT have tomatoes in it. I'll stay out of the argument, except to say that everyone has their own recipes for various foods, and goulash is no exception, including in Hungary. Just a possible explanation though: the passing down of recipes for goulash could likely date from a time before tomatoes were accepted as being safe in Europe. Tomatoes came from the New World, and they were originally thought to be poisonous, thus it is not out of the question that early recipes for the dish did not include tomatoes, and that omission was retained by many people, as the recipe was passed down.

**** The more typical Viennese style (German: "Gulasch, Wiener Art") uses beef, onions, some tomato puree or paste, paprika, salt, pepper and caraway, although some cooks add garlic, and/or, a bit of vinegar. I improvised a bit, using some tomato paste and about a heaping tablespoon of thick ketchup, which provided just a tad of vinegar. It should be slowly braised (a slow cooker is good for this) and end up rather dark in color, somewhat on the order of dark red wine. A variation of this is served with a fried egg on top, as well as one of the famous Vienna-style sausages ("Wieners," to Americans; German: "Frankfurter Würstl"), and a pickle, which in restaurants has one end cut into a fan shape. This is then called "Fiakergulasch," or "Cabbie's Goulash," with a "Fiaker" being the name for a two-horse carriage used as a cab long ago. The name was also used for the cab driver. 

***** The various forms of Zwetsche are not native German words, but another borrowing, "perhaps" from a non-German dialect from the alpine border area of northern Italy and eastern France.

WORD HISTORY:
Cook-This "seems" to go back to Indo European "kekewo," "perhaps" a variant form of "pekwo," which seems to have meant "to ripen;" the notion being to prepare inedible raw food until it is 'ripe;' that is, ready to eat. Latin had "coquus," which was borrowed into Old Germanic as "kukaz," a noun form. This gave its Anglo-Saxon (Old English) offspring "coc," which later became "cook." The Latin verb form "coquo" was likewise borrowed by Old Germanic as "kokanan," which then gave Old English "cocian," as well as "gecocsian," both meaning essentially "to cook." The latter died out or merged with the former, which then became "coken," before the modern form. Noun and verb forms are common throughout the other Germanic languages: German has "Koch" and "kochen" (meaning "cook, boil"); Low German Saxon "Kock" and "kaken/koken;" Dutch has "kok" and "koken;" Danish has "kok" and "koge;" Icelandic has the noun "kokkur" ("chef"); Swedish has "kock/kocken" and "koka;" and Norwegian has "kokk(en)" and "koke" ("boil"). Apparently Frisian does not use a form of the word in modern times, but it once had "koka."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Twenty-Three

"Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/B
"Foreign Policy & The German Question" (Part Four/3)
"Hitler Goes Home; Austria Joins Germany" (Part 3)

Just a little over a week after Hitler and Schuschnigg signed their agreement in February 1938,* Hitler gave a speech to the Reichstag (the German Parliament).** He thanked Chancellor Schuschnigg for his efforts over their recent agreement, but he also threw in lines about how Austrian sentiment to join Germany after the Great War (World War I) had been stopped by the Versailles Treaty, and how "ten million" Germans were being kept separate from other Germans.*** The speech brought more calls by Austria's Nazis for joining with Germany. By March, Schuschnigg made a decision that brought everything to a head. He announced on March 9th that a plebiscite (referendum) would be held on March 12th! Whether such a vote could have even been held on such short notice is questionable, but he cleverly worded the ballot issue to make it almost impossible for anyone to vote "No."****

Having thus tweaked Hitler's nose, Schuschnigg now paid the price. Hitler met with his military commanders and ordered them to cross the border into Austria early on March 12. German forces, aided by Austrian border guards, took down the barriers and streamed into Austria, to the jubilation of much of the populace. Hitler followed soon afterwards, driving through hysterical crowds who presented him with bouquets of flowers. He visited his birthplace just over the, now previous, border in Braunau-am-Inn and the city of Linz where he had spent much time as a boy. German radio and press reports (controlled by the Nazis) stated that German troops were only helping to restore order, but during a speech in Linz, Hitler announced that Austria was being incorporated into Germany. It was then on to Vienna and ecstatic crowds, and ringing church bells. The call to German nationalism was strong, and in Austria, where unemployment was high, people hoped for a better life. They got it in many ways, as unemployment dropped dramatically in less than a year, but they also got the ugly side; Jews beaten and arrested, anti-Nazi politicians (including Schuschnigg*****) arrested, and worse was to come.

Just a few weeks later, Hitler, in an ironic turn of events, used a national plebiscite to sanction Austria's absorption into Germany, with more the 99% voting "Ja." (Interestingly, the "Ja" vote in what had been Austria was a couple of tenths of a point higher than in the rest of Germany.)

* Schuschnigg later claimed he had been bullied into signing the agreement, and that is undoubtedly true, but he also signed the agreement undoubtedly to keep himself in office.

** Hitler kept the Reichstag to use for important speeches and ceremonial purposes. It was really no longer a true legislative body, and of course, it had only one party represented, the Nazis. After the damaging fire to the Reichstag Building in 1933, the Reichstag met in the Kroll Opera House ("Krolloper," in German) in Berlin, but only when summoned by Hitler.

*** Austria had about 6.5 million people and the German population of Czechoslovakia was about 3.5 million. He seems to have already been setting up a situation to deal with Czechoslovakia.

**** He used terms like "independent, German Austria," and "Fatherland."

***** Schuschnigg was not freed from captivity until the end of World War II. He later went to America, where he was a teacher, but returned to Austria where he died in 1977, just short of his 80th birthday.

WORD HISTORY:
Hail-This is the noun meaning "frozen rain/frozen precipitation/ice pellets." It goes back to an Indo European word for "pebble," which was "khaglo/kaghlo." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "hag(a)laz," which meant "hail." This gave Anglo-Saxon "haegl" and "hagol" (according to dialect). The "g" sound eventually died out, leaving English with "hail." The verb came from the noun and in Anglo-Saxon was "hagolian," and meant "to hail." Common throughout the other Germanic languages: German has "Hagel" (originally "hagal"), Low German also has "Hagel," and some dialects "hoagel," West Frisian has "heil" (notice the missing "g," as in English), Dutch has "hagel," Norwegian, Icelandic and Danish have "hagl," and Swedish has "hagel."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Six

"The Rise of Hitler and The Nazis" Part One/C
"Hitler, Munich & the Great War"

A bit more about Hitler's developing anti-Jewish feelings;* it "seems" that these feelings were not pathological while he was in Vienna, as many Jewish shopkeepers handled his paintings in their stores. Of course, he could have been like some of the egomaniacs unleashed upon us in more recent times through incessant deregulation; "I may hate you, but if you offer me money, I don't hate you that much. Mo' money! Mo' money! Mo' money!" Further, "supposedly" Hitler had some Jewish acquaintances, including a young lady he "liked" very much. Could Hitler have been rejected by this young lady or her family, "perhaps" for religious reasons, causing a resentment that festered into hatred? Over the years, I've read so many books and articles about Hitler, it is difficult to recollect the sources of some of these "stories;" that is, how reputable the sources were, but I also remember there have been various stories about Hitler and Jewish friends, including, if I remember correctly, his mother's doctor; the officer, Hugo Gutmann, who recommended the Iron Cross for Hitler in World War One;** Erhard Milch, a field marshal in the Luftwaffe (air force) during World War Two. I'm sure there were others, but this one is in my mind, and I can't remember the source, or even the exact story, so please keep that in mind. The story went something like this: There was a Jewish businessman who helped Hitler out financially during his days in Vienna. When Austria became part of Germany in 1938, and the Nazis began to keep tabs on all Jews there, the man contacted Hitler, who told him to leave Germany for his own safety, so the man went over the not too distant border into Czechoslovakia. A year later Hitler sent German troops into what was left of Czechoslovakia (an explanation will be forthcoming in a future part of this series). When Hitler visited Prague, the man turned up again seeking Hitler's protection. Hitler told him to leave the country, but not to go to Poland. The idea here was, Hitler already had plans to go into Poland in the near future. Whether I have the story completely correct is one thing, but also whether the basic story is even true is subject to question.***

Being a citizen of Austria-Hungary meant Hitler was subject to military registration and potential call-up for duty. Hitler was a "German nationalist," not an "Austro-Hungarian nationalist," and it seems the idea of serving in the Austro-Hungarian military was not something to his liking, and he evaded the authorities for quite some time. There are disagreements about when Hitler went to Munich ("München", in German), especially either 1913 or 1911, and I'm not currently aware if they have ever been resolved through true documentation. Hitler's statements and writings have to be considered suspect, as by that time he was in politics, and the idea that he evaded military service (even though in Austria-Hungary) could have given opponents a major issue. As I mentioned in the previous article, I seriously doubt whether the border between Germany and Austria was under strict control, with only customs duties being the main goal for both countries, not necessarily why people went to one country from another, or even back and forth. At some point, Hitler was given over to the Austrian authorities (remember, Germany and Austria were close allies, besides their historical ties) and he was deemed "unfit" for military service. Since this was pre-war, standards were likely more rigid; thus even minor physical problems could have kept Hitler out of service (during wartime, standards are more relaxed, as more personnel were required). Hitler returned to Munich.

Upon the outbreak of what is now called World War One, Hitler is seen among the crowd in a photograph in central Munich, as people celebrated the outbreak of war. I've seen moving picture film in television bios of Hitler, "supposedly" showing Hitler in the crowd, but I'm not sold on its being genuine. I don't know the source of the film, and I certainly could be wrong, but in the active crowd, pushing and cheering, Hitler is seen almost isolated and simply standing, pretty calmly. The film is also too distant to see Hitler up close, but it looks like a far later picture of him, in my opinion*** (same note as from above). Though legally a citizen of Austria-Hungary, Hitler was given permission by the Bavarian state government to join the Bavarian Army, which he did.**** Hitler was now part of the "German" military.

Next...."Hitler in the Great War"

* For more information on Hitler's ancestral background, see my article, "Hitler the Jew?," at this link: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2010/10/hitler-jew.html

** For the basic story about Gutmann and Hitler, see my article, "Part 80," of this series at this link: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2011/02/german-question-part-eighty.html

*** If anyone knows more details about this, or about the moving picture film, I hope you will share the info with us here in the comments section, which is free.

**** In the Germany of those times, the individual states were still ruled by nobles; in the case of Bavaria, by a king. These states had their own armies which made up individual parts of the overall German military, which was dominated by the state of Prussia, whose king was simultaneously Kaiser (Emperor) of Germany. The German officer corps was also heavily dominated by the nobility of various ranks, and one had to almost always be from the nobility to become a high ranking officer.

WORD HISTORY:
Pelt/Fell-This is the noun "detached skin with fur from an animal." This goes back to Indo European "pell(o)," which meant "skin." This then gave Latin "pellis," which meant "skin or hide." In Old French (a Latin-based language) this became "pel," and simply meant "one/a skin." The related French word "peltry" meant "skins" in general. This seems to be the source of English "pelt," and it may not have been acquired by English until the 1300s or even 1400s. Now, while archaic, English still has the little used word "fell," its own word, and it means "skin of an animal," but it also had a secondary and associated meaning, "the membrane on the underside of an animal's skin," which gave English "film" (this will be the word for the next article). "Fell" goes back to the same Indo European root for "pelt," "pello," and this then gave Old Germanic "fellam," "skin, or furry skin from an animal." The "p" sound became "f" in Germanic. This then gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "fell," which has since remained unchanged, although this noun for a fur-covered animal hide is archaic. Its forms are pretty common in the other Germanic languages: German "Fell" (German nouns are capitalized), meaning "pelt, fur, skin;" Dutch and some Low German dialects have "vel;" West Frisian "fel;" Swedish has "fäll." While I'm not certain of this, apparently any similar forms in Danish, Norwegian and Icelandic have died out, as I could not find them.

The German Question, Part One Hundred Five

"The Rise of Hitler and The Nazis" Part One/B
"Hitler in Linz & Vienna"

This is by no means meant to be a comprehensive bio of Hitler. There are countless books and articles on his life and documentaries are still most likely available on DVD.

Hitler had a contentious relationship with his stern father, Alois, who died when Hitler was thirteen. Hitler had aspirations for becoming an artist, and he later went to Vienna where he was rejected for art school. He then turned to architecture, but a troubled childhood left him without a graduation certificate (the American equivalent of a "high school diploma"),* which he needed to be admitted to school. He did some paintings in Vienna which he then sold to earn something of a living. It seems he may well have had help from family members, something he certainly kept quiet about later on when he was rising in politics. His mother, Klara, died from breast cancer in the city of Linz when Hitler was eighteen.** He eventually lived in a shelter for homeless men in Vienna.

Vienna was a very cosmopolitan city. The former capital of the Old German Empire remained as the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, often simply called "Austria-Hungary." Included in the city's people of diverse backgrounds were a fairly large number of Jews, many of whom were refugees from Russia, including the Russian part of Poland. Many were poor and others stood out in their strange (to Vienna) religious garb. Whether this was when Hitler acquired his hatred of Jews is uncertain, as some say it was earlier. The strong Catholicism of Austria certainly had to have made some earlier impression on his view of Jews, which may then have been hardened by his experiences in Vienna. Remember, it has only been in the last decade that the Vatican has reconciled to a fair degree with Judaism, softening its teachings about the other religion. Further, Hitler eventually read much of Luther's teachings. Luther was hateful of Jews, so some Protestant teachings aren't without guilt here too.

Hitler considered Linz to be his hometown for the rest of his life, just as he harbored a resentment for Vienna thereafter, too. His lack of "higher education" seems to have also fostered a resentment for those who had attended such institutions. He later lambasted his generals for having attended military academies, but that it was he who had conquered Europe, even though he hadn't been able to attend an academy. When no one dares to criticize you, you can get away with saying such things. 

Next, "Hitler, Munich & the Great War"

* Hitler's father was a civil servant, a customs official. He wanted Adolf to follow in his stead, but the boy wanted to pursue art and to attend a school where the arts were taught. His father forced him to go to another school and Hitler, by his own admission, deliberately neglected his school work in hopes that his poor marks would help to change his father's mind, but that did not happen, only embittering the boy even further. While I'm not a psychologist, there's no question that our childhoods have a big impact on what we become as adults. (Ah, pardon me for a second. "Hey, ya better not knock over my sand castle, ya moron!") Anyway, it makes me wonder if these sorts of things in Hitler's early life made him crave the power to make others do only what he wanted. The thing was, he did not always take responsibility for things that then went wrong; always blaming Jews, his generals, and finally the German people for HIS failures. Just a thought.

** After his father died, the family moved directly into Linz (they had lived nearby for some time), and Hitler considered Linz to be his hometown. Later in his life as the head of Germany, he dreamed of rebuilding Linz, and it became a bit of an obsession with him, even up to the closing days of the war.

WORD HISTORY:
Skin-This word goes back to Indo European "sken/skend," and carried the notion of "cut, peel, split." This gave Old Germanic "skinthan/skintha," which in turn gave Old Norse^ "skinn," which meant "animal skin or hide." The Old Norse speaking Danes^^ had a substantial presence in England, especially northeastern England, long ago, and Old English borrowed the word during the 1100s as "scinn," still with the "animal skin/hide" meaning. This eventually brought about a sort of flip-flop in meanings. English already had the old form of the word "hide" as the general word for "skin." The borrowed word "scinn" eventually lost, as its main meaning, "animal hide," and began to mean the more general "skin." The "animal skin" meaning then was left with "hide," although "hide" tends to be used more for large animals, and "skin" is still used for smaller animals. This all seems to have transpired by the 1300s/1400s. The spelling eventually became "skinn" before the modern spelling. The verb form, "(to) skin," developed from the noun circa 1400 (initially as 'skinnen?'). There are various forms in the other Germanic languages related to "skin," and the North Germanic languages still have the word, spelled "skinn" (although Danish has "skind"), again with the "animal hide" meaning, but I'm not certain if it is in common usage by many of them as much anymore. German has the verb "schinden" (once spelled 'skinten'), which means "to skin," but in more recent times it has taken on more figurative meanings, like "mistreatment,"^^^ Flemish, one of the major languages of Belgium, and now pretty much considered by linguists to be a dialect of Dutch, has "schinde," which means "tree bark," with the obvious connection being the "skin of a tree."

^ Old Norse is the old form of North Germanic, and didn't so much die out, as evolve into the various North Germanic languages (Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Icelandic, Faroese). The same is certainly true of Latin, which evolved into Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, etc.

^^ The English called them Danes, but they were both Dane and Norwegian.

^^^ Just as English has the expression, "skin someone alive," German too seems to have taken the idea of "skinning" to mean "mistreatment, torture."

The German Question, Part Twenty-Seven

"In English It's Vienna, But In German It's Wien"

The area of Vienna was originally settled by Celtic tribes, who apparently named the area "Vedunia," which meant "stream," or "forest stream." When the Romans came, they called their own encampment there "Vindobona," which some linguists feel was taken from the Celtic name, while others disagree. Whatever the case, Germanic peoples came to the area in force, including none other than Karl der Grosse (English/French, Charlemagne), considered by Germans to be their first emperor, who established the "Avar March" (German:"Awarenmark") in eastern Bavaria to guard his territory against the Avars, a nomadic group of people from central Asia, "seemingly" related to the Turks. The main Germanic people who settled the area then abandoned by the Romans were the Bavarians, and at some point the city became known as "Wenia," again supposedly taken from the Celtic or Roman terminology. This later became "Wien," in German (pronounced as if Veen), and Vienna, in English. Much of the Avar March later came to be called the "Ostmark" or "Eastern March;" a "march" being a fortified border area. It comprised much of what is modern Austria.

The German "Babenberg" family ruled the area and lived in Vienna for a couple of centuries prior to the rise of the Habsburg family, who then later also made Vienna their home. When the various Habsburgs rose to almost always be chosen as the German emperors, Vienna became the capital of the German Empire (Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation) until the end of the empire.

In 1529, the Ottoman Turks besieged the city, then surrounded by walls, as were many cities of those times. The city held out under the command of Graf von Salm (Graf=count, in English) and defeated the Turks, who retreated in serious disorder. This halted Turkish expansion in Europe at the time. The Turks returned, but not until July 1683. At that time an Ottoman army of between 100-200,000 men (sources vary on the number) surrounded the city. The initial German forces had been led by the emperor himself, Leopold von Habsburg (Leopold I), but they withdrew, and Leopold tried to organize forces for a relief attack. The remaining forces were seriously under strength, numbering less than 20,000, and that included several thousand civilian volunteers. The Turks demanded surrender, but the city, under the command of Graf Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg, refused. The walls of the city were strong and endured bombardment by the Turkish cannons, so the Turks decided to literally tunnel beneath the walls, plant explosive charges, and demolish the walls so they could then send troops into the city. Believe it or not, to counter this, the city commander had tunnels dug to intercept the Turks digging towards the walls!

The city garrison gradually began to look like they would lose the battle, but German forces under Karl (Charles), Duke of Lorraine,* arrived near the city and inflicted a serious defeat on some Hungarian forces allied with the Turks. Then major relief forces arrived outside the city in early September under the command of the King of Poland, Jan Sobieski, known as Jan III (he had an alliance with Leopold), who had several thousand excellent Polish cavalry. Various German forces (usually called "Imperials," since they were sent due to the appeal of the German emperor) from parts of the empire (Saxony, Bavaria and Franken, to name a few) also were part of this force, which by then saw this as a religious battle, too; Christian versus Muslim. As the Turks prepared a huge explosive charge to bring down a large section of the city walls, one of the counter-tunnels dug by the defenders came upon the Turkish explosives and disarmed them. Nearby, the assembled forces of both armies clashed, and the cavalry of both German and Polish forces carried the day against the Turks, who withdrew.

The Imperial and Polish forces captured large amounts of Turkish supplies, including a beverage that would become famous in Vienna, and all of Europe (and eventually America and the world), coffee! To this day, Vienna is known for its coffeehouses, which began springing up in the aftermath of this battle. Further, the city's bakers baked crescent-shaped rolls to commemorate the victory over the Muslim Turks (their flag had a crescent design on it), and this supposedly gave us the first "croissants," at least that's what the Viennese claim.

Like the Berliners, the Viennese have their own dialect. It is based upon High German, more particularly what is termed Oberdeutsch, "upper German," and it is part of the general "Bavarian" dialect of most, but not all, south German speakers.** In standard German it is called "Wienerisch," but in Bavarian it is called "Weanarisch." Like "Berlinerisch," it is basically spoken in the city and immediate suburban area, but begins to decline the further from the city limits one goes. Also, like with "Berlinerisch," people in the countryside may have great difficulty understanding it, even though in the case of "Wienerisch," it is based upon the same southern dialect of "Bavarian," whereas in Berlin, the dialect is quite different, as it is based upon standard German, with Low German influences, and in the countryside around Berlin, the dialect is based upon Low German. Again like "Berlinerisch," "Wienerisch" has been influenced by a number of non-German languages, in Vienna's case like Hungarian, Czech, and Italian, and the Yiddish influence on the dialect has also been noticeable.

In the United States, one goes to a bar (neighborhood type), in England one goes to a pub, in standard German one goes to a Kneipe (pronounced knipe-eh, with the "kn" sound pronounced, as we once did in English), but in "Wienerisch" one goes to a "Beisl" (the "ei" is pronounced as a long "i"). In standard German one might drink a "Bier" (pronounced pretty close to the English word), but in "Wienerisch" it is "Bia," as if bee-ah. We have "that" and standard German has "das," which comes out "des" in "Wienerisch," just as we say "have," which is "haben" (short "a" like in father) in standard German, but which comes out "ham" (not like English meat from a pig, but with the same short "a" in father). Many, but not all, participle forms of verbs in standard German begin with the prefix "ge," and English once did similar with either "ge" or "ga" prefixes, but in Bavarian generally, and certainly in "Wienerisch," the "ge" often becomes just a barely detectable "g," with no "e" sound, so that we have "gesehen" (ge-zay-en, which means "seen") in standard German, but gsehn (no "e" sound after the "g" or before the "n" either) in "Wienerisch" and much of Bavarian. Much like in English, standard German "mein" (pronounced like our word "mine," but meaning "my") becomes simply "mei" in Bavarian, pronounced like English "my." Where English has the now archaic "thine," standard German has "dein" (like "dine"), but in Bavarian it is reduced to "dei" (like English "die"). In the north, the use of the regular past tense is common. Since I used "gesehen," above, I'll stick with the base word "sehen," =to see. In the regular past tense, English speakers would say "I saw," and in standard German it is the very similar "Ich sah" (zah), but in the south, even in standard German, they tend to use the participle form for past tense, except for the much used words for "be" and "have" ("sein" and "haben" are the infinitive forms), so it would be "Ich habe gesehen" (which can be translated a variety of ways: "I saw," "I did see," "I have seen," this last being the literal word-for-word translation).

A Word History" is below the notes....

* Charles was known as "Duke (Herzog, in German) of Lorraine (Lothringen, in German)," but in fact, Lorraine at that time was under French occupation, so he had no territory.

** In more recent times, many linguists call "Bavarian" the hyphenated "Austro-Bavarian." I'll be more traditional and retain the term "Bavarian." While the overwhelming number of Austrians and Bavarians speak this general dialect, there are exceptions, as in far western Austria and northwestern Bavaria, the dialect is Alemannic; that is, the general dialect of Swabia, Alsace and Switzerland, while around Nuremberg, the dialect is Frankish (historically the regional name of the area is "Franken;" rendered in English as "Franconia"). 

WORD HISTORY:
Tread-This word is closely related to "trade." This word's ultimate origin is hazy, perhaps going back to an expanded form of Indo European "der/dr," which meant "to walk, to step." It appears that the basic word is only present in the Germanic languages, which goes back to the Old Germanic verb form "tredan(an)," which meant "to step (on), to walk (on.)." This then gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "tredan," which later became "treden," before becoming modern "tread." The noun form was derived from the verb in the early 1200s, and the idea of repeated "treading" on an area creating a path, developed the sense of "tire tread," from the "groove" created by such repeated treading. Related forms in the other Germanic languages: German has "treten," Low German has "treden," Dutch has "treden," West Frisian "tree," Danish has "træde," Swedish has "träda," Norwegian has "trø" and Icelandic has "troða/trotha."

The German Question, Part Fifteen

One of the most important families in German history is that of the Habsburgs. The family, or at least the part of the family that came to be such durable rulers, arose in the southwestern German lands, specifically a region known as Swabia. There they built a castle called "Habsburg" (Burg in German means "castle," and more specifically "fortified castle," as opposed to a palace-type castle, which in German is a "Schloss"). While there is some disagreement over how the name came into existence, the traditional view of historians and linguists has been that the "Habs" part came from a contraction of, or a dialect pronunciation of, the German word for "hawk," which is "Habicht," with the "s" showing possession; and thus we have "Hawk's Castle." The castle was built circa 1025 A.D., and "supposedly" had a hawk frequently perched atop its walls, thus spawning the name. From what is known, the family didn't begin to associate the name of their castle with their actual family until the early 1100s, but it is quite understandable that such would happen, as in those times, when not everyone had a family name, it was not uncustomary for people to take on the name of the place they were connected with in the public mind. So we have the "von Habsburg" family, with "von" meaning "of/from" in German, just as in England there is the "Duke of Edinburgh," "Robin of Locksley/Sherwood," etc. "Von" came to denote "noble" status in German when used as part of a family name.

By the 1400s, the area of the castle was taken over by the Swiss Confederation, and it remains a part of Switzerland to this day (the castle still stands in the village of "Habsburg," which only has a few hundred residents). Remember, in those times, the area of present-day Switzerland was part of the old German ("Holy Roman") Empire. Habsburg Castle lies close to the present-day border with Germany, and to its former owner, and to the area of Swabia (Schwaben in German), home of "Mercedes" vehicles. The Habsburgs eventually ruled from Vienna ("Wien" in German), and indeed, Vienna was essentially the capital of the German Empire for many, many years.

Over time, the Habsburgs expanded the family holdings from that small area to much of that part of the southwestern German lands (including Alsace and the area around present-day Freiburg), and then they proceeded to acquire lands further eastward to the border of the Empire, including much of present-day Austria. The history of all of these acquisitions is complicated, but the lands were not always "seized" by force,* but often were acquired through negotiations or through marriages, sometimes "strategic marriages."**

With the prestige of having so many lands, the Habsburgs became THE important German noble family of those times, with titles like "duke" and "archduke," and the family leaders were often elected as German emperors (and kings of Germany), the first being Rudolf von Habsburg (usually with the Roman numeral "I" included in his name, as Rudolf I von Habsburg) in 1273.*** In fact, over a period of nearly 600 years, a Habsburg occupied the imperial throne much of the time, and in the last 368 years of the empire, a Habsburg was German emperor for all but 3 to 4 years.****

So, this is one of the powerful German families that ruled German lands, and the Habsburgs were based in the southern area of German territory. A bit later, another family, based in the north, rose to prominence and challenged the Habsburgs for the right to rule Germany. (A "Word History" follows the notes)

* With the loose organization of the German Empire, the German states frequently fought with each other, often resulting in transfers of territory.

** "Strategic marriages" were those where Habsburgs deliberately married into families that owned lands they wanted (what's all this "love" stuff, anyway?); thus bringing some of those lands into the Habsburg domain upon marriage, or eventually all of the lands due to heredity. I should note, this was NOT a practice exclusive to the Habsburgs, but they could have taught classes in it, as they were masters at it.

*** Technically, Rudolf I was not the German emperor, but rather carried the title "King Of Germany" due to much political turmoil in Germany with the decline of the Hohenstaufen family dynasty and because of battles with the Papacy. In order to get the "blessing" of the Pope as German king, Rudolf had to renounce certain possessions of the empire in Italy. He is counted as a German emperor, as he was indeed elected by the German electors in Frankfurt in 1273.

**** Later, Maria Theresa of the Habsburg family married Franz Stephan, the Duke of Lorraine (German: Lothringen), a territory that is about to become very important in the, "who is a German," question. So there will be much more on Lorraine. Maria Theresa's marriage to Franz Stephan altered the name of the dynasty to, "Habsburg-Lorraine," but the long connection of the Habsburgs to the German imperial throne still remained. 

WORD HISTORY:
Kaiser-This word goes back to Julius "Caesar," who became Roman Emperor. His personality was so strong, his name became associated with his position as emperor, which was "Imperator" in Latin. The Germanic peoples picked up the word "Caesar" in their own various forms, as did the Slavic peoples (thus we have "Tsar" or "Czar," which is simply "Caesar" in Slavic form). Old English had "casere," but from what I can find, the word seems to have died out (maybe it was stabbed to death, like its namesake, ah, for those unaware, Julius Caesar was stabbed to death in Rome in 44 B.C. Okay, don't laugh too much!) During the mid 1800s, English borrowed "Kaiser" from German, as it was the German word for "emperor." This went back to Old High German "keisar," which had been borrowed from Latin, noted above. The modern German spelling of "Kaiser," comes from south German dialect ("Bavarian," or as some now call it, "Austro-Bavarian"), which tends to use "ai" in place of "ei" in some spelling, but with the same pronunciation. When many Americans hear the word, they most likely think of "Kaiser Wilhelm," who was German emperor during World War I (he was actually "Kaiser Wilhelm II), but "Kaiser" was the title of other previous German/Austrian emperors.