Indian Kidney Bean Curry: Rajma Masala

There are various recipes for kidney bean curries in the northern part of the Indian Subcontinent, with red kidney beans commonly used, including in Nepal and Bangladesh (light or dark red type), but brown type pinto beans are used in some places. In the Kashmir region, onion and garlic are not always used by everyone, and they also use Kashmiri ground red pepper, which is very red, but not as hot as regular Indian ground red chili powder. This regular hot Indian red chili powder is generally used elsewhere in India (it is very much like cayenne pepper). If you don't have Kashmiri chili powder, you can use 2/3 teaspoon sweet paprika (not the smoked type common in Spain) and 1/3 teaspoon cayenne pepper as a substitute, but then still add 1/2 to 1 teaspoon cayenne pepper (or other hot red pepper) in the recipe. I know some folks don't like much heat, but actually this isn't a red hot dish that will cause smoke to billow out of your mouth. A fairly common connection in the various recipes is that the beans are cooked and then some are mashed to varying degrees, and this helps to thicken the curry without any other ingredients being added. 

  

The kidney bean curry is almost always served with a nice portion of rice next to it, and then it is referred to as "Rajma Chawal" (kidney beans and rice), but pickled red onions are another good accompaniment.*  

 

By the way, I've found that this is one of those dishes that improves when the leftovers are put in the refrigerator until the next day; so, the curry is great to serve then too.

 

 

Ingredients (4 to 6 servings):

 

2 cans of kidney beans (14.5 to 16 ounces), rinsed and drained

2 tablespoons vegetable oil or other neutral oil

3 cloves garlic, minced

2 inch piece ginger, peeled and grated or finely chopped

1 small to medium green chili (a jalapeno chili is fine), chopped

1 1/2 cups chopped red onion

1 1/2 cups tomato puree

1 teaspoon ground turmeric

1 teaspoon Kashmiri chili powder (or 2/3 teaspoon sweet paprika + 1/3 teaspoon cayenne pepper)

1/2 to 1 teaspoon cayenne pepper (or regular Indian chili powder)

2 teaspoons ground coriander

1 1/2 teaspoons ground cumin

1 tablespoon fenugreek leaves

2 teaspoons salt 

2 tablespoons chopped cilantro (also known to some as 'coriander') 

1 cup warm water

 

Add 2 tablespoons oil to a pan or skillet (I use a 10 inch diameter skillet) over medium heat; add the chopped red onion and saute until the onions just start to brown a bit. Add the garlic, ginger and green chili, saute a further 1 or 2 minutes (the onion should be softened and with some brown color to it). Add the tomato puree, ground turmeric, chili powders (Kashmiri or the substitute + cayenne pepper), ground coriander, ground cumin, fenugreek leaves and salt; stir to mix everything together well and cook for about 4 or 5 minutes; then add the water and mix everything together well. Add the kidney beans, stirring well. Let the curry come to a boil, then adjust the heat to maintain a nice steady simmer; cook for 8 to 10 minutes, then use a fork or potato masher and mash the mixture, so that about a third to a half of the beans are mashed to some degree (they don't have to be totally mashed), then mix all together well. Add the chopped cilantro (fresh coriander) and mix in and cook another 1 to 2 minutes. Serve with either rice, pickled onions or naan bread (or chapati/roti bread), or go for it and serve with rice, pickled onions and one of the bread types. 

    

* For how to make easy pickled red onions, here is the link: https://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2023/03/indian-style-pickled-red-onions.html

  

 

 

WORD HISTORY:

Soufflé (also souffle)-The main part of this word is related to "bladder" and to "blow" (to move air), both from the Germanic roots of English, and to "inflate," a word English borrowed directly from Latin. "Souffle" is formed of two parts, with the first part going back to Indo European "upo," meaning "up, up from beneath, up from under." The main part goes back to Indo European "bhle(h)," meaning "to blow." This gave Old Italic "flao" meaning "to blow" (with the  'b' of Indo European rendered as 'f' in Italic), and this gave Latin "flare" with the meanings "to blow, to breathe." These forms gave Latin "sufflare" meaning "to blow up with air, to inflate," and this passed into Old French as "souffler" (initially 'sofler?') meaning "to blow up, to inflate, to blow out (exhale);" thus, the figurative "to whisper." This gave French the noun "soufflé" from the participle form of "souffler" and essentially meaning "that which is puffed up," and used as a culinary term for "a dish with beaten egg whites that are folded into other ingredients, and which then make the dish 'puff up' when baked." English borrowed the word from French, circa 1815.

Creamy, Strong Chai: Karak Chai

Here in the U.S., when we hear the word "chai," we think of tea prepared with some sort of spice component. The thing is, on the Indian Subcontinent, the word "chai" simply means "tea." This chai is different from what most people would think of as "regular" chai; that is, "spiced tea" (masala chai) on the Indian Subcontinent, or at your local cafe down the street,* as it is a stronger brew of tea (with higher caffeine content), which is the actual meaning of "karak chai" (also "kadak"), "strong tea." It is common in India, Pakistan, the Gulf region of the Middle East (brought there by Indian immigrants), especially in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Qatar, but there are variations in recipes. This tea uses a rather high proportion of whole milk or evaporated milk, which makes it thick and creamy, and it tends to be modestly flavored by some spices, but it is cooked for a somewhat longer time. "Karak chai" is generally something of a tan color up to something more of a brown or an orangish brown color. Some add a few saffron threads, but this addition is far more common in the Gulf region of the Middle East. 

 

Ingredients (4 servings):

 

1 can (12 ounces) evaporated milk

1 1/2 cups (12 ounces) water

5 teaspoons black tea

4 or 5 teaspoons sugar 

1 inch piece fresh ginger, peeled and sliced

3 whole cloves

1 1/2 inch cinnamon stick

4 crushed cardamom pods

2 slightly crushed whole peppercorns  

(optional) good pinch of saffron threads

Add the water to a pot/pan over medium heat and bring to a boil, then adjust the heat to maintain a steady gentle simmer. Add the cloves, crushed cardamom, cinnamon stick, peppercorns, sliced ginger,  and, if using, saffron threads; simmer for 2 or 3 minutes. Add the tea and stir and keep stirring at a light, steady pace as the tea simmers; about another 3 minutes. Add the milk and sugar, stir further to mix and to dissolve the sugar. When the tea is heated again, strain it into individual cups. Note: This tea is supposed to be sweet, but you can add sugar to the pan in some basic amount, but then have the sugar bowl nearby for those who like their chai sweeter. 

 

 

* For "chai," here is the link:  https://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2016/08/chai-pronounced-like-cheye.html

 

 

WORD HISTORY:

Mere-There are noun forms of the same spelling, but this is the adjective (and the derived adverb, "merely"), and the noun forms are unrelated to the adjective. The origin of this word is uncertain, but it seems to go back to Indo European "merh-o,"^ which meant "remaining (the same);" thus, "pure, unaltered." This gave Latin "merus" (via Italic "mero"), meaning "unaltered, unmixed, pure;" thus also, "real."^^ This gave Latin-based Old French "mier," also meaning "pure;" thus also, "total, complete," and English borrowed the word in the latter part of the 1300s, initially with the meaning "pure, clear (of sound), unaltered," and then "absolute, sheer;" thus, "simply, only." The adverb "merely" developed in the mid 1400s meaning "of nothing more, only, solely."     

^ Some believe "mere" goes back to Indo European "mer," meaning "gleaming, shining," but I'm not convinced.

 

^^ See "Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages" (Volume 7 of the Leiden Indo-European Etymological Series, by Michiel de Vaan, Brill (Publishing), Leiden (Netherlands), Boston (U.S.), 2008. 

Indian Vegetarian Burgers

Vegetarian substitutes for meat have been gaining in popularity over the years, and even many of the fast food places entered into the market for such foods. Somewhere around a third of India's population is vegetarian, and that figure "could" even be higher.  

 

As I'm sure many of you know, the foods of India are often "spicy," and you can certainly adjust the heat level of these "burgers." Scrub the potatoes well and you can leave the skins on, if you'd like. There are lots of chili pepper varieties used on the Indian Subcontinent, and many of the specific types are not available all over the world, but "generally," you can substitute other types of chilies; as for instance, you can use jalapeño chilies in place of the various green chilies used on the Indian Subcontinent. As I've mentioned in some other articles, I've had jalapeño chilies that really had no heat; I mean, they were like green bell peppers; but on the other hand, I've had jalapeño chilies that could bring smoke billowing from your nostrils. So, use the number of chilies to accommodate your desired level of heat, but remember, chilies also provide a degree of flavor. 

Ground coriander is not the same as fresh coriander, which is better known as cilantro in many parts of the world. Ground coriander is the spice made from the seeds. As for cardamom, you can buy ground cardamon in a jar (some say bottle), or you can buy, or you might already have, whole green cardamon pods, and you can grind them yourself (I often use a mortar and pestle, and sometimes a spice/coffee grinder). You might find ground fennel in some supermarkets or spice shops, but certainly not in all. Or you can use a spice or coffee grinder, or a mortar and pestle and grind about 6 or 8 fennel seeds for this recipe.

 

You don't have to be precise in how you chop or cut the veggies, because they will be mashed or processed after cooking. You don't want the veggies, lentils and peas to be mushy, and you don't want them dripping with moisture, so drain them super well. The lentils and split peas will be processed too, so they don't have to be cooked until totally tender, as if you were making soup or curry, but you don't want them to be hard either. By the way, if you don't have red lentils, or if you can't find them easily, use brown lentils; the earth won't shift because of it.  

I know the list of ingredients looks long, and there's a reason for that ... IT IS! But it includes the spices often used in Indian cooking. Generally speaking, I'm not a real big fan of commercial Indian spice blends like garam masala or curry powder (and there are others). Many people of India, and from the overall Subcontinent, as well, make their own spice blends at home; so, they are not "standard." I keep a couple of commercial spice blends for occasional convenience, but I often prefer to add individual spices to recipes myself; thus, that's another reason for the list of spices here. The long list doesn't mean any of this is complicated, because it isn't. All you're doing is measuring out various spices and adding them to the recipe.

Serve with fried potato wedges

 

Ingredients (4 to 6 burgers):

 

2 1/2 cups chopped potatoes

1 1/2 cups chopped carrot

1/2 cup green beans

1/3 cup red lentils (or brown lentils)

1/4 cup split green peas

1 onion (tennis ball size), peeled and quartered

1 1/2 inch piece ginger, peeled

4 cloves garlic

1 to 3 chilies (depending up desired heat level)

1/4 cup fresh coriander, known to many as cilantro

2 teaspoons ground coriander (NOT the same as ground up fresh coriander, ground coriander is a spice made from coriander seeds)

1 teaspoon ground cumin

1 teaspoon ground cardamon 

1 teaspoon ground turmeric

1 1/2 teaspoons ground cinnamon

1 teaspoon ground black pepper

1/2 teaspoon ground cloves

1/2 teaspoon ground fennel 

1/2 teaspoon ground mace

about 1/3 cup breadcrumbs (more if needed, I prefer fine breadcrumbs for this, not panko)

1/4 cup flour + 1/4 teaspoon ground black pepper + 3 to 4 tablespoons water

1/2 to 3/4 cup of breadcrumbs (separate from amount above)

oil for frying 

hamburger buns, lightly dry toasted, then buttered

lettuce leaves

tomato slices

onion slices

1/2 cup mayonnaise + 1 clove minced garlic + 1/4 teaspoon ground red pepper + 1/4 teaspoon ground black pepper

Use a pan that can hold the potatoes, carrots and green beans. First, cook the potatoes and carrots in lightly salted boiling water, but keep them rather firm, NOT mushy, then add the green beans for just a couple of minutes before removing the vegetables from the heat, as the beans shouldn't take long to cook. DRAIN WELL!

Cook the lentils and split peas in lightly salted simmering water until softened, but again, NOT mushy ("about" 15 minutes) ... DRAIN WELL

Mash about a third of the vegetables, lentils and split peas to a coarse mixture in a large bowl (this will provide some texture to the burgers). Process the rest of the vegetables, lentils and split peas, along with the onion, ginger, garlic, chilies and fresh coriander until just finely chopped; add to the bowl with the coarsely mashed ingredients; add the spices (ground coriander, cumin, ground cardamom, ground turmeric, cinnamon, black pepper, cloves, ground fennel, mace) and the 2/3 cup breadcrumbs; mix together very well (remember, this mixture needs to be able to hold together as a "burger-type" patty, so if it needs more breadcrumbs, don't hesitate to add them). 

Roll the mixture into rounds (golf ball to tennis ball size), then press them to make patties (I make them about 1/2 inch thick). Mix together the flour, pepper and water in a shallow bowl (it should be thick, but not really a paste). Put the breadcrumbs onto a plate or into a shallow dish. Dip the patties into the flour mixture, then into the breadcrumbs to coat.

Fry the patties in oil over medium heat until browned on both sides  

For the mayonnaise, mix the ingredients together well. Serve with any or all of the toppings.

 

 

WORD HISTORY:

Oblige (Obligation)-"Oblige" is related to "ligament," a word borrowed by English from Latin, and to "liaison," a Latin-based word borrowed from French, and to "league" (the noun meaning "confederation, alliance, association"), another Latin-based word borrowed via French, which had it from Italian. The prefix "ob" goes back to Indo European "ep(i)," which meant "toward, near, against, to." The main body of the word "oblige" goes back to Indo European "leig," which had the meaning, "to bind." This gave Latin "ligare," with essentially the same meaning, "to tie, to bind." The combination gave Latin "obligare," meaning "to tie to, to fasten;" thus also, "to bind to responsibility, indebtedness, liability." This passed to Latin-based Old French as "obligier" meaning "to commit to something, to pledge oneself to something," and then became "obliger," and English borrowed the word circa 1300 as "obligen" meaning "to commit/pledge oneself to something (sometimes involving an oath), to feel compelled to do or behave in a particular way,"^ later also, "to be indebted (or to feel indebted) to someone." The noun "obligation" goes back to Latin "obligationem," the accusative form of the verb "obligare" (see above). This passed into Old French as "obligacion" meaning "legal or perceived responsibility or duty, a pledge, commitment or contract to do something (often to pay indebtedness)." English borrowed the word in the early 1300s, initially as "obligacioun," from French, but with influence from Latin. 

 

^ Verb forms ending in "en" was how English indicated the infinitive form in those times, and how its cousin, German, still does. As such, English speakers didn't have to insert "to" into sentences, as the "en" signified that same meaning; thus, "obligen" meant "to oblige." English later changed its way of conjugating verbs by dropping the "en," but usually adding "to" to statements like, "I have to go;" whereas, German still just uses the "en" form; thus, "Ich muss gehen," meaning "I have to go," but it also means, "I must go," it can be translated either way (notice English doesn't have to use "to" when we say, "I must go," with "must" being an auxiliary verb).    

Indian Ginger Chai

This is NOT ginger tea; that is, ginger boiled in water to make a tea, rather this is black tea with ginger added as an ingredient and the ginger gives the tea a little kick. You can adjust the amount of tea to your own taste preferences, but I like pretty strong tea. Some Indians use a good bit of sugar in this tea (and in spiced chai, called masala chai), and it's too sweet for my taste, so I use less sugar. Ginger tea is common in India, and "I assume" it is also prepared in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka, but I don't know that to be a fact or to what degree it might be prepared in any of these countries. 

 

Ingredients (2 to 3 servings):

 

3 teaspoons black tea leaves or 3 or 4 tea bags

1 1/2 inch piece of ginger, peeled and grated

3 cardamom pods, cracked or slit open, or ground up

2 cups water

1/3 cup milk (or to preference) 

4 teaspoons sugar 

In a pan, add the water, ginger and cracked cardamom pods, bring to a boil and adjust the heat to maintain a steady simmer. Simmer for 5 minutes, then add the sugar and gently stir for about 1 minute to dissolve the sugar. Add the tea and simmer another 4 minutes, for strong tea, or just 2 minutes, for milder tea. Add the milk and stir to mix; simmer another 2 minutes, strain the tea into cups. Serve with cookies, cake or something more to the savory Indian side, like samosas. Samosas are pastries stuffed with potatoes and various seasonings, and you can get them at any Indian or Pakistani restaurant (hopefully you have one or more nearby), and they are common throughout the Indian Subcontinent. They are often served with some type of chutney.

WORD HISTORY:

Sparse-This adjective (and adverb, as "sparsely") is related to the main part of "disperse," a Latin derived word borrowed by English from that language, to "spore," a type of reproductive element of some fungi and some plants and other organisms, a word English borrowed from Latin, which had borrowed it from Greek, and it is distantly related to "spread," a word from the Germanic roots of English. "Sparse" goes back to Indo European "sper," which meant "to scatter," with the extended form "spreg/sperg," meaning "to scatter about, to strew, to sow (seed)," and this gave Old Italic "sparg," which gave Latin "spargere," meaning "to scatter (about), to shower or sprinkle, to strew," and a participle form of which was "sparsus," meaning "scattered, strewn about;" thus also, "speckled, spotted, spread about." English borrowed the word from Latin "sparsus" at some point between circa 1730 and circa 1750 (tough to pin this down).  

Kashmiri Pink Tea: Noon Chai

 "Noon" chai, also spelled "nun," is also called "Kashmiri Chai," and Kashmiris commonly have it with breakfast and again at afternoon tea, and at times in the evening.

 

Use a brand of green tea with no added ingredients like mint, vanilla, or bergamot (bergamot is a citrus fruit and an additive to Earl Grey black and green teas). Any good Chinese, Indian or Ceylon green tea should work well, and I tried three different types of green tea, but there were differences in the "pinkness" for each type. It seems the pink color is just for fun, because the taste of the tea is not really changed by how pink the tea is (at least in my opinion). In Kashmir they use Kashmiri green tea leaves, which have the unique name of "Kashmiri green tea leaves." hahaha What, you thought they'd use Argentine tea leaves, or "hojas de té argentino," which means, "Argentine tea leaves?" Wow, Argentina uses another unique name. 

 

There are variations to make Kashmiri chai, with some people using several spices, but I've just used green cardamom pods, which are available in spice shops and in some supermarkets, and you need to crush them a little to allow the flavor to be infused into the tea during brewing (although you can leave the shell on). Some people use ground cardamom, a small cinnamon stick and some cloves, as well as some saffron strands, and even star anise. Understand, not all Kashmiri chai includes all of these spices, as they are used according to individual preferences. Kashmiris simmer the tea for quite awhile to make a "tea concentrate," although again, the cooking process can vary as to how much water and milk is added and how long the tea is cooked. Once the cooking process is complete, salt and often some sugar are then added for serving, sometimes along with some chopped pistachios and chopped almonds. I want to note here, I prefer to add some sugar, as well as a little salt to this tea, but it's my understanding that it is common for Kashmiris to just add salt. The tea is often served with flatbreads specific to the Kashmir region.

 

Ingredients (4 smaller servings, 2 larger servings):

 

2 1/2 tablespoons green tea leaves

2 cups water, to start, then another 2 cups

(optional) 4 or 5 saffron strands

6 to 8 cardamon pods, crushed

1/4 teaspoon baking soda

1/2 teaspoon salt

1 1/2 cups milk

For serving:

more salt, to taste, if desired

(optional) sugar, to taste

crushed pistachios and/or sliced almonds  

In a pan, let 2 cups water come to a boil, then stir in the green tea, cardamom pods, and baking soda (optionally also the saffron). Reduce the heat to keep the tea at a steady simmer, while stirring frequently, almost constantly. Simmer until only about 1/4 of the water remains, then add 2 more cups of cold fresh water to the tea. Increase the heat again until the tea returns to a boil, then as before, reduce the heat and keep the tea at a steady simmer. Let the liquid cook down again, but this time until 1/2 of the liquid remains, then add the milk. Let the tea return to a simmer and continue to simmer it for a total of about 12 to 15 minutes, by which time it should cook down a bit again. Serve with a pinch of salt, some sugar, if desired, and some added crushed pistachios and/or almonds.    

 

 With some crushed pistachios and almonds ...

WORD HISTORY:

Cardamom-The ultimate origins of the parts of this compound word are unknown. It seems likely the word "cardamom" is a blending and overlapping of "cardamon" and the similar "amomon." "Cardamom" goes back to transliterated Ancient Greek "kárdamomon," which seems to be a word that combined 1) transliterated "kárdamon," a word of unknown origin (although see more below), but which meant "cress," a type of spicy plant (with many actual variations), and 2) transliterated "amomon," another word of uncertain origin (some believe it to be from China or elsewhere in Asia), but which seems to have been applied to the black cardamom plant. The word "kárdamon" "may have" come out of one or more of the languages of southwestern Asia, including Hittite from Anatolia (essentially now Turkey, but before the Turks arrived there). Latin borrowed the Greek compound "kárdamomon" as "cardamomum," which by then meant "cardamom," in general, including both the black and green types, which are both from the "ginger family," but each from its own genus and both have pods containing seeds used as a seasoning. The Latin form "cardamomum" passed to Latin-based French as "cardamome," and English borrowed the word in the mid 1500s, likely from Latin, but perhaps popularized by French culinary usage.     

Sichuan Sauce

"Sichuan" sauce, also spelled "schezwan" in India by some, and "szechwan" in English by some, is a spicy hot chili pepper sauce used as a condiment added to prepared foods, or used as a dip for some foods, or used in recipes to add flavor and heat. The use of 35 to 40 chilies makes a relatively modest amount, which you can store in a jar or covered bowl in your refrigerator for a week or two. If you want to reduce the heat, you can remove the seeds from the chilies, or at least from some of the chilies, but this sauce is supposed to be spicy hot. Also, the amount of oil is high, but this helps to preserve the sauce. While the basis of Sichuan sauce is from China, it is not uncommon in parts of India, or in other areas of the world where its spicy heat is enjoyed by those who long to test their own endurance versus spicy dishes. As such, there are quite a number of recipe variations, and my recipe here is somewhat influenced by Indian versions. 

Ingredients:

35 to 40 dried red chilies (like cayenne or arbol chilies), stems removed

water to cover the chilies, then reserve the water used for soaking/cooking

4 tablespoons vegetable oil

2 large cloves garlic, minced

1 1/2 inch piece of ginger peeled and minced

1/2 teaspoon salt

1/2 teaspoon soy sauce

1/3 teaspoon sugar

1 1/2 tablespoons white vingar

2 tablespoons thick tomato ketchup 

  

Put the chilies into a pan and cover them with water. Soak the chilies for 1/2 hour, do not drain. Now put the pan/skillet over medium heat until the water boils, and boil the chilies for about 3 to 4 minutes, then cover the pan/skillet and adjust the heat to maintain a steady simmer. Let the chilies simmer until they are softened and flexible (about 6 to 8 minutes), remove from the heat and let the chilies stand until cooled. Only some of the water should remain, reserve this water to use in a few moments (most of the water should have been absorbed or have evaporated). Put the cooked chilies (not the water) into a food processor or blender and process until no large pieces of pepper are visible. Heat the oil in a skillet over medium heat, then add the garlic and ginger; saute for a minute or two, but do not let the garlic and ginger brown. Add the processed chilies to the skillet and saute a further 2 minutes, stirring often, then add a tablespoon of the reserved "chili water," stir well, let cook for 1 minute, then add another tablespoon of the water, and stir well again. Cover the skillet and reduce the heat to very low. Let cook for about 4 to 5 minutes (during this time check to make sure it is not sticking; stir it a little occasionally). Add the salt, soy sauce, sugar, white vinegar and ketchup and then mix well and cook for another 2 minutes. Best if left to cool a bit before using.     

WORD HISTORY:

Bleat-This word, meaning "the sound made by sheep and goats," is distantly related to "feeble," a Latin-derived word, borrowed by English via French, and it is somewhat more closely related to "bellow" (deep sound made by certain animals, later used for people), a word from the Germanic roots of English.^ It goes back to Indo European "blhe," which had the notion, "to make sound," likely derived by our ancient ancestors in imitation of certain sounds initially. This gave Old Germanic "bletjanan," meaning, "to bleat, to make sound (for some animals)."^^ This gave Old English "blætan" (to bleat), which then became "bleten," before the modern form. The noun form in Old English was "blæt," which of course later also became "bleat," the noun. There are relatives in other Indo European languages with forms of the word, and in Latin the word developed the meaning "to weep or to cry,"^^^ which is hardly a startling development. German once had "blazen," and Dutch still has "blaten" (to bleat).  

^ While very similar, "bellows," the noun meaning, "a device used to force out air," is not related, as it is from a different source and its rendering with the plural ending "s" seems to have come from the device having two handles that were pushed together to expel the air, thus conveying a sense of two separate parts, thus, plural. 

 

^^ See "Etymological Dictionary of Proto Germanic," by Guus Kroonen, published 2013.  Part of the "Leiden Indo European Etymological Series," edited by Alexander Lubotsky, published by Brill (Publishing), Leiden, The Netherlands, Boston, U.S.

^^^ The Latin verb is "flere," meaning "to weep," with the extended meaning, "to grieve." The Indo European "b" beginning became "f" in Latin. 

Indian Vegetable Fritters: Pakoras

"Pakoras" are fried "clumps" of seasoned batter made of chickpea flour which is filled with a mixture of chopped vegetables, or just individual vegetables like onion, cauliflower or chili peppers (mild or hot). Another word used for them in India is "pakoda," although potatoes fixed this same general way are generally called "bajii" or "bhaji."* Pakoras are often served with tea or spiced tea (masala chai) and some also serve some chutney on the side. Myself, I like some ranch dressing for dipping. To make your own ranch dressing, here is the link:  https://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2016/06/homemade-ranch-dressing.html 

Pakoras are easy to make and I made mine somewhat larger than is likely typical in India (most recipes call for the use of a tablespoon of batter, but I used a serving spoon). Once you are ready to cook, fry the pakoras in batches and do not overcrowd the pan or they will likely soak up the oil and become soggy. The temperature of the oil has to be maintained (350 F, about 180 C), and a small cube of bread should sizzle and brown when dropped into the oil. Remove each batch of fried pakoras with a slotted spoon and drain them on paper towels. Also remove any small bits that may have broken off into the oil while frying, or these bits will burn and discolor the oil, as well as imparting their burnt flavor to the oil and to the next batches of pakoras. 

Ingredients (for about 15 to 25 pakoras, depending upon the size):

1  2/3 cups chickpea flour
2/3 teaspoon baking powder
1/2 to 1 teaspoon ground red pepper (according to your heat preference)
1/2 teaspoon ground turmeric
1 large clove garlic, minced
1 inch piece of ginger, grated
1 teaspoon salt
1/4 cup onion, finely chopped (larger pieces likely won't cook properly)
1/4 cup mild green chili pepper, like banana pepper, chopped
1/4 cup mild red pepper, like red bell pepper, chopped
1 to 2 green hot chili peppers (I use serranos), seeded and finely chopped (again, according to your heat preference)
1/4 cup chopped spinach leaves (no stems)
1/4 cup coriander/cilantro leaves
water (enough to make a thick batter)
oil for frying

In a bowl add the chickpea flour, baking powder, ground red pepper, turmeric, garlic, ginger and salt; mix together well. Now add the chopped vegetables and the coriander/cilantro leaves. Slowly add water and mix to incorporate the water until a thick batter forms. I use my hand to do the mixing. The batter should be a bit thicker than pancake batter. Let the batter sit while the oil heats, then use a table spoon (or the somewhat larger serving spoon) and put the batter into the hot oil. Fry the pakoras in small batches until they are golden brown, which should only take a few minutes for each batch. If you use a smaller amount of oil that won't cover the pakoras, you will need to turn the pakoras to cook them on both sides.

* For such a recipe for potatoes, here is a link. This is based upon heavy Indian influence in Kenya, where the potatoes are called "bhajias" : https://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2020/03/kenyan-potato-bites-potato-bhajias.html

WORD HISTORY:
Bungalow-This word for a "low level one story house" is related to "Bangladesh" and to "Bengal," words from the Indian subcontinent borrowed by English. The origin of the word likely goes back to the name of an ancient god from some parts of the Indian subcontinent which formed the basis of the words "Bengal" and "Bengali." Transliterated Hindi, an Indo European language, and one of the main languages of the Indian subcontinent, had "bangla," which meant "a low level house with a thatched roof." This gave Gujarati, an Indo European language now spoken by about 60 million in the Gujarat area of India, the transliterated "bangalo," with the same general meaning. English borrowed the word in the latter part of the 1600s from Hindi and Gujarati from British involvement in India and it conveyed the meaning, "low level house of the Bengali style, with a covered terrace." 

Indian/Pakistani Ground Meat & Peas: Keema Mattar

The roots of this dish seem to date back at least a few hundred years to a time when the Muslim Mughals (see "Word History" below) controlled a good part of the Indian subcontinent; thus, the dish can also be made with ground ('keema' means 'mince,' sometimes now spelled 'qeema') beef, as well as either ground lamb or ground goat, with the latter two especially used by Hindus, as cows are respected in Hinduism, even among many Hindus who are not vegetarians. The general dish likely predates the tomato and chili pepper ingredients, the inclusion of which would have had to have been later, as tomatoes and chili peppers didn't arrive in India until the 1500s, taken there by the Portuguese from the New World. The Portuguese established a colony in western India (Goa).     

In England and other parts of Britain the term "coriander" is common for the parsley like plant, while in American English the term for the same plant is "cilantro," a borrowing from Spanish, and I dare say, many Americans would not likely know what you meant if you said "coriander."  

This dish is commonly served with rice and/or Indian breads, like chapati, naan or paratha, which is a layered bread "similar to," but not the same as, puff pastry.

Ingredients:

1 1/4 pounds ground lamb or ground beef
1 large onion, chopped
5 cloves garlic, chopped
2 inch piece ginger, peeled and grated or chopped
2 inch piece of cinnamon stick
5 whole cloves
3 tablespoons vegetable oil or clarified butter (ghee)
2  jalapeño or serrano chilies, chopped
2/3 teaspoon ground hot red pepper (like cayenne pepper)
1 tablespoon ground cumin
1 tablespoon ground coriander
1 teaspoon ground turmeric
1 teaspoon salt
4 tablespoons tomato paste
1 1/4 cups water 
1 1/2 cups peas
4 heaping tablespoons chopped fresh coriander (cilantro), divided use  

In a large skillet, heat the oil or ghee over medium heat. Add the cinnamon stick and cloves, saute about 30 to 45 seconds, then add the onion and cook about 2 to 3 minutes, then add the garlic, ginger, chilies, ground red pepper, cumin, ground coriander, turmeric, salt and cook for about another 4 minutes. Add the ground meat and cook for about 5 minutes. Mix the tomato paste with the water and add to the skillet, stirring to mix everything together well. Let the curry come to a boil, then reduce the heat a bit to keep the curry at a simmer. Cook for 20 minutes, until the meat is cooked, then add the peas and cook 6 to 8 minutes until they are cooked. Stir in 2 tablespoons chopped coriander/cilantro, then garnish each serving with some chopped coriander/cilantro.
 
With paratha bread, a layered flatbread ...  

WORD HISTORY:
Mogul-This word, meaning "rich and powerful person, usually a business person," goes back to the Persian form for "Mongol," usually transliterated as "Mughal." The Mughals established an empire in southern Asia in the 1500s, and their leaders claimed a heritage dating back to Mongol ruler Genghis Khan; thus, the connection to "Mongol." The Mughal emperor had the world famous Taj Mahal built in India during the 1600s. The word was borrowed into English in the second half of the 1600s, but the idea of the rich and powerful "Mughal" emperors in India led English to the meaning of a rich and powerful person, as "mogul."   

Nepalese Spicy Potatoes: Aloo Dum

It seems the Portuguese first brought potatoes to the Indian subcontinent way back in the 1500s, but it was the British who helped spread the use of potatoes in the region.* Nepal, one of the countries of the Indian Subcontinent, is the home of Mount Everest and much of the country is within the Himalaya Mountains. The population of Nepal is somewhat above 25 million. The capital of Nepal is Kathmandu, a name I love. This dish has some variations, as the general recipe idea transcends the borders of Nepal, northern India, Pakistan and Bangladesh and it is also termed "Dum Aloo" and "Aloor Dum," depending upon region, and in many areas it is has much more sauce (also called 'gravy'), and small sized potatoes are often used. It actually seems to have originated in the Kashmir region of northern India (now split between India and Pakistan).    

Ingredients:

2 large potatoes (about 3 cups of cut potatoes), cut into bite sized pieces
1 medium onion, chopped
2 to 6 green chilies, per your heat preference (serrano or jalapeño), chopped
1 teaspoon ground turmeric
2 inch piece of ginger, chopped
3 cloves of garlic, chopped
1 large tomato, chopped (or half a 14 1/2 ounce can of chopped tomatoes, not completely drained)
1/2 teaspoon ground fenugreek
2 teaspoons ground cumin
1 teaspoon ground cayenne pepper 
1 teaspoon mild chili powder (like ancho chili powder)
4 tablespoons vegetable oil
1 teaspoon salt     

Boil the potato pieces in some lightly salted water until just tender, NOT mushy. While the potatoes cook, in a large skillet, heat the oil over medium heat. Add the onion and saute for about 2 minutes, then add the garlic and ginger. Saute until the onions "begin" to brown, stirring to prevent the garlic from burning. Now add the chilies and cook another 30 seconds before adding the ground fenugreek, ground turmeric, ground cumin, cayenne pepper, chili powder; mix everything well, then add the chopped tomato and cook another couple of minutes. Add the cooked, well drained potato pieces and fold them in to coat them with the sauce. (NOTE: some drain the cooked potatoes and then fry them in oil until somewhat browned; they then add them to the seasoning mixture.) Cook gently folding the potatoes for a couple of minutes. Serve with rice.

* Potatoes, tomatoes, papayas, guavas, pineapples and chilies all came from the "New World," more specifically, from Central and South America. These "goodies" were spread to other parts of the world by the Spanish and Portuguese, and then later given a further boost by the British and French (perhaps also the Dutch?).

WORD HISTORY:
Or-Technically, there is more than one word in English "or," but this is for the most common (by far!), the conjunction. For such a little word, "or" has a very complicated history, but I'll keep things simple. It goes back to Indo European "eti," which had the notion, "beyond, further;" thus also adverbially, "furthermore," "and also." This gave Old Germanic some form that is unclear to me, and some speculative forms by others have failed to convince me of a good possibility. Anyway, this Germanic form gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "oþþe"^ (=oththe), which meant, "either, or." This later became "oththr," and then "other" (not the same word as modern "other"). This gradually was contracted to just "or," but the contracted form didn't completely overtake "other" until the 1500s. Other Germanic languages have: German "oder" (originally "odo," then "oda," then "odar," then "oder," which has retained the similar form to its now contracted English cousin "other"), Low German "or" and "oder" (originally "ettho/ettha," then "eftho/eftha"),^^ Dutch "of" (contracted from "ofte"), West Frisian "of" (originally "joftha," then later, "oft"), Old Norse, the forerunner to the modern North Germanic languages, had "eða" (=etha) and "eðe" (=ethe), and Icelandic still uses the "eða" form to this day. Danish, Norwegian and Swedish have no direct relative of English "or," as all use "eller" to mean "or." "Eller" is a relative of English "else."  

^ Another form, "eþþa," also existed. Remember, no standard language in those times. 

^^ The modern Low German forms have "likely" been influenced by standard German, and also by its close cousin English. 

Indian Red Lentil Curry

Lentils are a common food on the Indian subcontinent. Recipes vary, but this dish is generally made without meat. "Red" lentils, called "masoor dal," are typically orange, so don't ask me why they're called "red lentils," but they change color when cooked, to a somewhat "yellowish" color. Red lentils are generally available in supermarkets, Indian/Pakistani shops or Middle Eastern stores. This is an easy dish to prepare and the cooking time is not long, as soaking the lentils helps, but red lentils cook pretty quickly. I chose to serve my lentils in a bowl, but I just as easily could have used a plate. 

Ingredients:

1 cup red lentils
1 cup vegetable broth (more, if the mixture gets too dry as it cooks)
1 medium onion, chopped
4 cloves of garlic, chopped
1 1/2 inch piece ginger, peeled and chopped
2 tablespoons vegetable oil
1 teaspoon ground turmeric
1 teaspoon ground coriander
1 teaspoon ground cumin
1 or 2 chili peppers (red or green), finely chopped
1 tablespoon curry powder
1/2 teaspoon ground cloves
1/2 to 1 teaspoon salt
1  14 to 15 ounce can diced tomatoes with juice
1 tablespoon butter 
good pinch of sugar

Soak the lentils for 25 to 30 minutes in cold water. Drain the lentils. In a sauce pan over medium heat, add the oil, when heated, add the onion and the ginger. Cook for about 2 minutes, then add the garlic and the chili pepper. Stir and cook for another minute, then stir in the turmeric, cumin and ground coriander. Add the red lentils, stir to mix well. Add the vegetable broth and stir. Cook until the lentils are to the desired softness your prefer. Stir in the tomatoes, curry powder, ground cloves, salt and sugar, mix well and heat for a further minute or two. Add the butter and stir it in as it melts. Serve with rice. 

WORD HISTORY:
Lentil/Lens-The origin of this word is unknown, although forms appear in parts of the Indo European languages (Germanic, Slavic, Greek, Latin), but several sources note that it may have been borrowed into Indo European from a language of the eastern Mediterranean area of which little is known. Its known history goes to Latin "lens," which was the name of the plant that produced lentils, as well as the name for the seed/pea/bean of that plant, which is a legume. The beans/peas/seeds of legumes are often also called a "pulse," a term not all that common in American English and seemingly unrelated to "pulse," meaning "heartbeat," as the same spelling is coincidental. Latin "lens" produced the diminutive form "lenticula," which passed into Latin-based Old French as "lentille," and this was borrowed by English in the 1200s. The shape of lentils gave the original Latin word, "lens," the secondary meaning of "glass that alters light rays, glass/glasses used to improve eyesight," and this was borrowed by English in the second half of the 1600s (Latin was often used in scientific and medical terminology). The meaning further came to include the curved part of the eye by circa 1700. German has "Linse" which has both meanings, "lentil" and "lens," with the second meaning coming from Latin, but where German got the original word, which goes back to before 800 AD, is unknown, although the spelling leads me to believe it was borrowed from Latin.

Yogurt Drinks of the Indian Subcontinent, Part 4 of 4

Here are two more sweet lassis, including the very popular "mango lassi." 

Mango Lassi-This is a very popular sweet lassi, also called a "smoothie" in restaurants or specialty beverage shops in the U.S. There are also commercially bottled versions of mango lassi. How many brands are there? I have no idea, as I "tend" to prefer freshly made foods, but I did buy a bottled mango lassi recently at a South Asian shop. I guess it was maybe ten ounces, but it was far too sweet for me.

Ingredients for 4 servings or 2 large servings:

1 cup plain thick yogurt
1 teaspoon to 1 tablespoon or more honey (see below)
1/2 teaspoon ground cardamom
1/4 cup milk
2/3 cup mango (fresh chopped or canned)
ice cubes

If you want to use fresh mangoes, you need well ripened mangoes. In this case too, you will likely want to add more honey, probably at least 1 tablespoon, but that's a matter of personal taste. Lately, I must admit that I've cheated... I mean, I've chosen a streamlined way; that is, canned mangoes, which usually come in a sweet syrup. If you use canned mangoes, you can reduce the amount of honey, but instead, use a little of the syrup, according to how sweet you want the lassi. You can add a little sprinkle of ground cardamom on top. Put all ingredients in a blender and blend for about 30 to 45 seconds, or until smooth.

Turmeric Lassi

Ingredients per large serving:

2/3 cup plain thick yogurt
1 banana (chilled, lightly frozen)
2/3 cup cold water
3 teaspoons ground turmeric
1 teaspoon chopped ginger
2 tablespoons honey
couple of ice cubes

The banana should be peeled and put into the freezer for about 10-12 minutes. Put all ingredients, including ice cubes, into a blender and blend for about 45 to 60 seconds, or until the banana and ice cubes are broken up and mixed in. You can sprinkle a little turmeric on top, as I've done in the photo.

WORD HISTORY: 
Mango-The ultimate origin of this word is uncertain, although it goes back to Tamil, a Dravidian language of southern Asia, especially from parts of India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore. The transliterated Tamil form, "mankay" (like, "main-kay"), meaning, "fruit of the mango tree."This was borrowed into Malay, a language of the Austronesian language family (which includes Tagalog/Filipino, one of the major languages of the Philippines), as "mangga," meaning, "mango." This was then borrowed by Portuguese^ as "manga," and English borrowed the word from Portuguese in the late 1500s, although its use became more common somewhat later, as the English planted mango trees in some of their tropical possessions in the New World.

^ The Portuguese were great explorers long ago, a fact sometimes forgotten, and they controlled East Timor, then called "Portuguese Timor," from the 1500s until 1975. It then became part of Indonesia, before gaining independence in 2002.  

Great Spices and Herbs of the Indian Subcontinent, Part 2

This is the second part about spices and herbs used in the dishes of the Indian subcontinent. I should note, while I've specifically named India, Pakistan and Bangladesh in the first part, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives and Sri Lanka are also parts of the Indian subcontinent, and while dishes in those countries may have a few other ingredients, many of these general herbs and spices are commonly used in food preparation in these countries too. Readers from those countries, give me some time, because my plans are to do specific dishes from your homelands too.   

Fennel seed-also called "saunf/sonf"-an anise/licorice (British: "liquorice") flavored seed, sort of a gray color (British: grey colour). Besides their being used in recipes, they are sometimes chewed by people on the Indian subcontinent after a meal to aid in digestion, as they are said to be good for the digestive system. Some, but certainly not all, use them in making "chai" (spiced tea). See "Word History" below

Fenugreek-This is a plant, also called "methi," with both the leaves and the seeds used in food preparation on the Indian subcontinent. I have never bought the leaves, nor the whole seeds, but the ground seeds, sometimes called, "fenugreek powder," are easily obtainable in spice shops and in Indian/Pakistani grocery stores. 

Garam Masala-This is a ground spice mixture of many different variations often including, but not limited to, cloves, cinnamon, coriander, black pepper, cardamom, nutmeg. 

Ghee-also known as "clarified butter," is butter with the milk solids removed; thus, the remaining butterfat can be heated to a higher temperature than regular butter. The term "clarified butter" was certainly popularized in the U.S. (and perhaps elsewhere) by English cook Graham Kerr.*

Ginger-also known as "adrak," and also sometimes referred to as, "ginger root." Ginger is a stem-like group of roots and nodes that have a fresh, sharp taste. It is VERY common in many Asian cuisines, and especially so on the Indian subcontinent. It has a light brown skin that must be peeled off, and ginger is often grated or chopped before being added to recipes.

Mango powder-also known as "Amchur," is a golden or light brown colored powder of ground, dried unripened mango. It is sour in taste.

Mint-also known as "podina," is a fragrant herb, with a sort of warm taste, used in cooking, but which can also be used fresh in salads, and it forms the basis of menthol for breath fresheners and toothpaste. It is a common herb used in some chutney or in certain lassi yogurt drinks (smoothies) on the Indian subcontinent.  

Mustard seeds-also called "sarson," are typically the yellow variety in the U.S., and they are commonly used in pickles (cucumbers or other vegetables) and of course, they are ground and used in a popular condiment... "mustard." On the Indian subcontinent, black mustard seeds are more commonly used, and mustard seeds are usually put into hot oil until they "pop," before other ingredients are added or they are removed and added to a recipe. You may well find black mustard seeds in some supermarkets, and more likely in spice shops, and definitely in Indian/Pakistani shops.

Nigella seeds-also known as "kalonji," "black caraway seed," or "black cumin." They are often dry  roasted briefly in a skillet and they are commonly used in recipes, including in, or on top of, some regional naan bread, a common flatbread of the Indian subcontinent. Some spice shops should have these seeds, but they will definitely be available in Indian/Pakistani shops.

Nutmeg-also known as "jaiphal," is a common spice used in cooking, especially in sweetened baked goods. It is available as a rounded whole seed, which you will then have to grate as needed, or it is available in ground form in jars or cans. The ground form can be found in any store that sells even a limited variety of spices, while the whole nutmeg is available in spice shops and many supermarkets.    
Panch Phoron-sometimes as, "Panch Phora," is a mixture of five spice seeds especially common in the Bengal region of India and Bangladesh. I have never bought this, but I'm pretty sure I've seen it in an Indian grocery. 

Parsley-This is a common green herb used in recipes and as a garnish. It should hardly need an introduction to you, and it is sold fresh in just about any produce store or supermarket.  

Pickles-I've included pickles, because on the Indian subcontinent they are common, but these are NOT the pickles you find on your hamburger at the corner hamburger place, but rather a variety of fruits and vegetables that are combined with oil and spices, either individually, or in some combination. They have "heat," and some even have a lot of "heat." I like "mixed pickles." (See photo below)

Pulses-While these are not spices or herbs, they are a common ingredient in food for the people of the Indian subcontinent. They are legumes of peas, beans or lentils, which when split, are known as "dal," Mung beans are also known as "moong beans" or "green gram," are a type of bean/pea, but with the green skin removed, exposing their inside light yellow color. When split, this makes them another type of "dal." Such legumes are common on the Indian subcontinent for everyone, but especially for the many vegetarians there, primarily in India. Lentils come in several varieties, with the dark-colored type the most common in the U.S. On the Indian subcontinent, "red" lentils are commonly used, but they are really an orange color. 

Rose Water-is a flavoring agent made by soaking rose petals in water. It can be found in spice shops or Middle Eastern grocers or Indian/Pakistani grocers. It is often used in sweet foods or drinks.

Saffron-also known as "kesar/kesari," saffron is from the flower of the crocus plant. It is likely the most expensive of all spices. On the Indian subcontinent the threads of saffron, which are typically red or orange in color, are briefly roasted in a skillet, then soaked in warm water or warm milk, giving the liquid a orange to yellow color. The liquid is then put into whatever recipes is being prepared. You will likely find saffron in supermarkets, but definitely in spice shops and Indian/Pakistani grocers.    

Tamarind-is a fruit pulp with a sour taste used in some curries, chutneys and sauces, including steak sauces or other food seasoning sauces. Tamarind can definitely be found in Indian/Pakistani shops, as well as other Asian grocers, but some supermarkets likely have it too. 

Turmeric-also known as "haldi," is an orange/golden colored ground spice that is said to be good for digestion and to fight inflammation. It adds an orange or yellow color to dishes. 

* Graham Kerr was born and raised in England, but he later lived for several years in New Zealand and Australia. He did a television show recorded in Canada for about three years from the late 1960s into the early 1970s. The show was broadcast in the United States, and it was called, "The Galloping Gourmet," and Kerr often mentioned and cooked with, "clarified butter," between gulps of wine... ah, I mean, sips of wine. I watched the show faithfully, and the guy was a hoot, and I swear he was about half tanked by the end of some shows.


You can click on any picture to enlarge it. These are "mixed pickles," my favorite, which I bought at an Indian grocer, but I've also bought similar at a spice shop. This brand has mango (unripened), limes, carrot and green chilies, beside the oil and various spices, including red chili powder (like ground cayenne pepper).

This is rose water, which I bought at a spice shop. This happens to be from Lebanon.

Clockwise from the top: ginger, cumin seeds, black mustard seeds, yellow mustard seeds and nigella seeds (also called, black cumin or black caraway seed)

Clockwise from top left: fresh mint, fennel seeds, mango powder (Amchur), turmeric and saffron.

Clockwise from top left: cilantro (also known as "fresh coriander"  or "green coriander"), ground coriander (from the seeds, listed in "Part 1"), ghee (also known as "clarified butter"), ground fenugreek, tamarind paste/concentrate.

Top, nutmeg; bottom left, red lentils; right, split mung beans

WORD HISTORY:
Fennel-This word for a plant used as a vegetable, an herb and a spice (the seeds), and distantly related to "fetus," goes back to Indo European "dhei," with the notion of, "to nurse, to suckle;" thus also, "to bring up (a child), to produce;" thus further, the result of those actions; that is, "a yield, product, produce." This gave Latin "faenum," which meant, "hay," the diminutive form of which was "faeniculum," ^ meaning, "fennel," from the little "tufts" on the plant that reminded people of "hay."  The Latin spelling later changed to "feniculum." English borrowed the word in the 1200s, as "finel/finol," perhaps initially directly from Latin, but most definitely reinforced by Old French "fenoil," which Latin-based Old French used as its form of the Latin word.

^ A diminutive is a form of a word that conveys a meaning of "smallness" or "dearness." 

Great Spices and Herbs of the Indian Subcontinent, Part 1

The people of the Indian subcontinent are not shy about the use of spices in their recipes. More and more, people in other parts of the world are discovering the cooking techniques and flavors of far off lands on a regular basis, instead of just on an occasional visit to a restaurant. Such is true with the foods of the Indian subcontinent, and with the spices and herbs that go into providing those foods with their lively, and often fiery, flavors.   

I once made my own naan bread, but I also saw it made in a real Indian tandoor oven in an Indian restaurant here in Cleveland about 1979 or 1980. The place had Indian food displayed right in the window, but it's been so long ago, I just forget everything. That got me interested in Indian food and history, which then was reinforced by the movie "Gandhi" in the early 1980s.

This is most certainly not an all inclusive list of herbs and spices used on the Indian subcontinent, but it will more than adequately cover a wide swath of recipes from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, as well as provide good coverage of many recipes of some other countries of southern Asia. I've tried to add other names for many of the spices and herbs, but the Indian subcontinent is home to MANY languages and dialects, literally hundreds of languages and dialects,* and what is called a particular name in one area, may be called by a totally different name in another region, and by still another name a little further from that, so I'm not claiming that the forms I've listed are the definitive terms. 

Asafoetida-also called "Hing"-a light yellow powder (you might also find it in chunks in some specialty stores or shops). It is from a plant related to fennel. It is known for its strong smell, and it is usually sold in jars with a small sealed opening that has to be punctured to sprinkle the contents, then another top on the jar seals off the opening to keep the smell from escaping. Used in a number of vegetarian recipes by first putting just a small amount in hot oil for just a couple of seconds, which totally mellows the smelly spice.

Black Peppercorns-also called "Kali Mirch," peppercorns are commonly used in many countries, so they are readily available. The popularity of cooking shows on American television in the last couple of decades has made the use of pepper mills to grind peppercorns much more common than they had been, although I'm sure the already ground black pepper in cans still sells very well. Grinding your own pepper makes the pepper fresh and more flavorful and you can make the grind as you want it, from coarse to fine. Peppercorns are also used whole, at times, in certain recipes in various cultures. 

Black Salt-also called "Kala Namak," is a type of salt with a sulfur smell. I have black salt from Hawaii, and it is in small granules, which are truly black in color. I also have a package of black salt from India, and it is mainly powdered, but with some small pieces of the salt left in. It is sort of a light purple or pink color.

Cardamom- also called "Elaichi," can be bought in brown or light green to grayish colored pods that contain seeds that are used to flavor a variety of dishes, among which are sweet dishes and baked goods, including such outside of the Indian subcontinent. Some recipes call for whole cardamom pods to be used and the pods are cracked or smashed first, as this allows the flavor of the seeds inside the pods to season the cooking food (the pods themselves are not eaten). Cardamom is also sold in ground form, which has a gray color. The ground form is readily available in supermarkets and spice shops, while the whole pods are available in Indian/Pakistani shops, and likely some spice shops. The seeds are also sold, but I have never bought cardamom that way.

Chaat Masala is a ground spice mixture, and thus its ingredients vary. Readily available in Indian/Pakistani shops, and in some spice shops.

Chilies-both fresh and dried. You'll see a number of recipes call for "green chilies," and green jalapeño or serrano chilies are fine. Other recipes will call for red chilies, and fresh cayenne chilies are great in this role. Often too, recipes call for dried red chilies, and you want to get dried chilies that give heat and flavor. A number of months ago I bought a bag of dried red chilies, but they turned out to be useless, as the chilies had neither heat nor much flavor. The best thing is that once you find a good dried chili product, stick with it, but unless you fix food with chilies on virtually a daily basis, or unless you regularly fix food for a 10,000 person military base nearby, you're not going to be buying dried chilies every other week. If you go to an Indian/Pakistani grocery store, I suggest you buy the dried chilies there, and give Kashmiri dried chilies a try from there too. They are a deep red color, with moderate heat. Some recipes may say to soak the dried chilies in water, while others may say to put the chilies into hot oil for a minute or so, before adding other ingredients and proceeding with the recipe.

Chili powder (of the Indian subcontinent)-This is not the chili powder used to make Texas or Southwestern chili, but rather it is ground red chilies, like what we call "Cayenne pepper," or "ground red pepper." It is hot, and it's supposed to be. Cayenne pepper is, of course, readily available in just about any store, and you may well already have some on hand in your kitchen cabinet. 

Cilantro-also known as "coriander" or "green coriander," or "Hara dhaniya," is an herb readily available in supermarkets or produce stores. Also common in Mexican and other Latino cooking in the U.S., where the name "cilantro" is most often used. 

Cinnamon-also called "Darchini," is typically used in curled cinnamon stick form on the Indian subcontinent, although the ground form is much more common in the U.S. Further, cinnamon comes from a few variety of trees, and there are differences in how strong the taste is. What is termed "true cinnamon," or "Ceylon cinnamon" is touted as the best variety health wise, but it is also much more expensive. Typically the cheaper cinnamon, called "Cassia" is what you get in supermarkets or grocery stores, and it is no less "true cinnamon" than the Ceylon type, except by name. Readily available in any store that sells spices, but the Ceylon cinnamon will more likely be found in good spice or health food stores, or in Indian/Pakistani grocery shops. 

Cloves, also known as "Laung," are another spice often used on the Indian subcontinent in whole form, although the ground form is readily available. Cloves are actually the powerfully flavorful and aromatic bud of a tropical tree flower. The taste of cloves can overwhelm a dish if you aren't careful, so use sparingly in either the whole form or the ground form. Readily available in just about any store that sells spices.

Coconut milk-This is the product of coconut flesh and water, not the coconut water from the coconut itself. It is used in sweet dishes. It is easily found in cans in many stores, including Latino shops and Indian/Pakistani shops. 

Coriander-also known as "Dhaniya," is often used in the seed form on the Indian subcontinent, where it is first roasted briefly and then ground for use, but it is also commonly sold already ground, which can be roasted right before use. Many supermarkets should have at least the ground form, and spice stores and Indian/Pakistani shops will almost certainly have the seed form also.

Cumin, also known as "Zeera" or "Jeera," is a highly common spice in recipes on the Indian subcontinent, where the whole seeds are roasted and then ground, although the already ground form is also used, and it too can be roasted briefly before use. The seeds look very much like its relative, caraway seed. It is also common in some Latino cooking, especially Mexican. It is readily available in ground form in just about any store that sells spices, but the seeds are easily found in Indian/Pakistani grocers and well stocked spice shops.

Curry leaves-also known as "curry patha," are often used fresh on the Indian subcontinent, where the tree commonly grows. They may be fried briefly in oil and then ground, or chopped and added to recipes. I use leaves that are already ground, which are available in spice stores and Indian/Pakistani grocers. The fresh leaves do not keep well, and while I've never bought the frozen leaves, I've read mixed reviews about them. Finding either fresh or frozen could prove to be a challenge in many countries.

Curry powders-These are spice mixtures with a variety of ingredients (there is no ONE recipe for curry powder), often mixed together for commercial sale, as people on the Indian subcontinent generally add each of the spices to dishes according to their own recipes. It is "my understanding," that curry powder was developed for sale in Britain when much of the Indian Subcontinent was a British colony, as this made it easier to combine spices into mixtures for sale, than to try to transport and sell the individual spices in Britain 200 to 300 years ago. This mixing of spices into "curry powder" has lasted right up to the present, and you can easily find curry powder in supermarkets, spice shops and Indian/Pakistani grocers, often with various brand names, varied ingredients and varied "heat" levels. 

* The main languages of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are Hindi, Urdu and Bengali, respectively. They are all from Indo European and are, thus, related to English, although further down the family tree. Some other languages, primarily in India, but also to some extent from the island of Sri Lanka, are from the Dravidian family of languages. English is often used in governmental matters and in higher education; however, English is not universally spoken on the Indian subcontinent. 

From top left, clockwise: Cinnamon (Cassia), cloves, black peppercorns (click to enlarge)

From top left, clockwise: fresh green and red chilies, dried red chilies, Kashmiri dried chilies

Jar of asafoetida.

WORD HISTORY:
Fetid-The ultimate origin of this word, related to the second part of "asafoetida/asafetida," is uncertain. It goes back to Latin "fetere," which meant "to stink, to smell badly." This produced the adjective "fetidus," meaning, "stinking, foul smelling." This was borrowed by English circa 1400.