What's In A Name: Eugene, Jasmine

Eugene-This male name is from transliterated Greek "Eugenios," pretty much literally "good stock," but often translated as "well born."  This was taken by Latin as "Eugenius," and passed into French as "Eugène." behindthename.com says the name was not very common in western Europe until the time of Prinz Eugene of Savoy, who became well known in the latter part of the 1600s and the earlier 1700s. He was a military commander for the Old German Empire (Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation) and for the Habsburg monarchy, although he had been born in Paris when Louis XIV was King of France. He was of French and Italian descent. He is a pretty famous person in German/Austrian history. "Apparently" the name made its way into English via Latin, French, and perhaps, German (?). The name in German is Eugen and is Eugenio in Italian. The female form in English is Eugenia and in French it is Eugénie, a name that became well known in the mid 1800s as it was the name of Napoleon III's wife (he was Napoleon's nephew and Emperor of France).  

 

Jasmine-This name is from the plant/flower (from the "olive" family), which has long been used to make perfume. It goes back to transliterated Persian* "yas(a)min," the name for the plant/flower, but where the word comes from is unknown. Arabic borrowed the word from Persian as transliterated "yasamin," and Old French borrowed the word originally as "jessemin," which then became "jasmin," and English borrowed the word in the 1570s. In spite of this information, exactly where English got the female given name usage is unclear, although the name has become rather popular in English and quite a number of other languages, including forms in Persian, Arabic, French. Certainly the use of plants and flowers for given names is quite common (think "Rose," Holly," "Lily" and "Daisy," and there are more). The name is sometimes spelled with a "Y" in place of the "J" in some languages (for instance, sometimes in Spanish as "Yasmin") and the name sometimes is spelled without the ending "e" in English.

I consulted the following for preparation of this article: 1) "A Greek-English Lexicon," by Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, Roderick McKenzie, and Eric Arthur Barber, published by Oxford/Clarendon Press, 1940  2) "A World of Baby Names" by Teresa Norman, published by Perigee/Penguin Group, New York, 2003 3) behindthename.com

* Persian is an Indo European language making it a relative of English, although further down the family tree. 

WORD HISTORY:

Cosmos-I'm going to say the ultimate origin of "cosmos" is unknown, although there have been some Indo European forms proposed, but there is no general consensus about any one form. "Cosmos" and "cosmetic" are close relatives. What is known about "cosmos" is that it goes back to transliterated Ancient Greek "kósmos," which meant, "order, arrangement;" thus also, "the universe" (seen as an arrangement or order); thus also, "decoration" (something added to give order to someone or something with the intent of improving its appearance). The famous Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras used "kósmos" as his word for the heavenly bodies and the universe. German scientist and thinker Alexander von Humboldt (he was from Berlin) used the Greek word used by Pythagoras and applied it to (then) modern times for his work "Kosmos," a multi-volume work published in the mid 1800s. English seems to have simply anglicized the word as "cosmos." English had taken the word in the 1100s (from Greek texts?), but it was very rarely used, "seemingly" even among academics. Humboldt's work appears to have been the catalyst for a re-borrowing, or a revival, of the word.

Turkish Bulgur Pilaf

While rice holds a strong role as an accompaniment in Turkish cuisine, bulgur also is well known in that category. When I was younger I don't recall hearing just "bulgur," but rather I heard it called "bulgur wheat," and indeed, bulgur is wheat that is partially cooked, dried and cracked; thus, it is a type of cracked wheat. Bulgur is common in Turkey and in the Middle East. This "Turkish Bulgur Pilaf" can be used as a side dish, or you can make some "cacik," get some pita bread and have some bulgur pilaf for lunch.*   

 

Ingredients (multiple servings):

 

2 cups coarse bulgur wheat

3 tablespoons extra virgin olive oil

1 1/2 cups chopped onion

1/2 cup chopped green bell pepper

3 cloves of garlic, chopped or minced the olive oil

3 ripe roma tomatoes, chopped

2 tablespoons tomato paste 

3 1/2 cups chicken or vegetable broth

1/2 teaspoon ground black pepper

1/2 teaspoon salt

 

Heat the olive oil in a heavy-bottomed pan over medium heat. Add the onion and saute until it softens a bit, then add the garlic and green pepper and saute another 3 to 4 minutes (we're not looking to really brown the vegetables, but it's okay if they begin to lightly brown). Add the tomatoes and the tomato paste, stir well to break up the paste, and then add the bulgur wheat. Now add the broth, salt and pepper and stir to get everything mixed together. Let the mixture just come to a boil and then adjust the heat to low or very low. Cover until the liquid is absorbed. In other words, cook the bulgur as you would cook rice. Stir the pilaf to be certain the vegetables are thoroughly mixed through the bulgur before serving.  

* Turkish "cacik" is the same as Greek "tzatziki," a sauce/dip made from yogurt, garlic and other seasonings. Here is the link to my article and recipe: https://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2018/01/greek-tzatziki-turkish-cacik-sauce-dip.html

 

WORD HISTORY:

Pilaf-The ultimate origin of this word for rice or wheat cooked with seasonings is unknown, although speculation seems to tilt toward a non Indo European origin, perhaps Dravidian, a family of languages of southern Asia, with a large presence in the south of India. "Pilaf" goes back to Persian, an Indo European language related to English further down the family tree, which had transliterated "pilav/pelav," a term for cooked rice. Turkish took the word as "pilav," and the term was often also used in Turkish for cooked wheat. English borrowed the word from Turkish initially as "pilau" in the early 1600s, but with the later variant "pilaf" becoming common, although "pilau" is still in use, mainly in some areas of Britain ("perhaps" from influence of transliterated Urdu "pulao," as Urdu is one of the main languages of the Indian subcontinent, where Britain had a long involvement, and where Urdu is the majority language in many northern areas).     

Thai Pumpkin Curry

This is a great and nutritious curry. Thai red curry paste is available in many supermarkets, Asian grocery stores and some spice and seasoning shops (it's not expensive). It is usually sold in small jars, which is how I buy it, but just to prove me wrong, when I went to buy it for this recipe, they were out of the brands in jars, but they had it in small cans.

 

Ingredients (4 servings): 

 

3 cups chopped fresh pumpkin, in bite-size pieces (you can substitute acorn or butternut squash, if you'd like)

3 tablespoons peanut oil

1/4 cup chopped red onion

4 cloves minced garlic

2 inch piece ginger, peeled and grated

1 red bell pepper, chopped

1 hot chili pepper (preferably red, but green is fine)

3 or 4 tablespoons Thai red curry paste 

1 cup kale, torn into smaller pieces, with no thick stems

1/2 teaspoon ground cinnamon

1 teaspoon ground turmeric

1/2 teaspoon ground white pepper (use black pepper if you don't have white)

3/4 teaspoon ground coriander

2/3 cup mild chicken broth or vegetable broth

1 can (13.5 to 14 ounces) coconut milk

2 teaspoons soy sauce + 1 teaspoon brown sugar

2 tablespoons fresh lime juice

garnish with roasted peanuts and/or cashews or serve on the side 

Heat the peanut oil in a heavy bottom pan over medium heat. Add the red onion, garlic, ginger, chili pepper and red bell pepper; saute for about 3 minutes, then stir in the Thai red curry paste. Cook just about 1 1/2 minutes (don't let anything scorch or get dark in color), then add the pumpkin, ground turmeric, ground cinnamon, ground white pepper, ground coriander, and stir constantly. After another 2 minutes, add the chicken or vegetable broth and let the curry heat up again until it begins to bubble, stirring occasionally. Adjust the heat (to low or to 'simmer,' if you have that setting) to maintain a steady light simmer (not a rolling boil) and let the curry simmer about 10 to 12 minutes, or until the pumpkin is tender (when the pumpkin is about half cooked, add the kale and continue to mix the kale in as it cooks down). When the pumpkin is just tender, stir in the coconut milk, and mix it in well. Do your best to dissolve the brown sugar in the soy sauce and then stir this into the curry (civilization will not end if the brown sugar isn't completely dissolved, as it will dissolve in the hot liquid). Cook a further 2 to 3 minutes, then mix in the fresh lime juice. You can sprinkle some roasted peanuts and/or roasted cashews on top of each serving, or simply serve them on the side. Serve with rice. 

I put the peanuts and cashews in a small dish on the side ... 

WORD HISTORY:

Shawl-The origin of this word is uncertain, but it "could" be as simple as being derived from transliterated Persian "Shaliat," the Persian form of transliterated "Chaliyam," a city in southwestern India.^ The "theory" is, the cloth used for making the piece of clothing used as a large scarf for the head and upper body got its name from the city where it was made. The Persian form, transliterated "shal," was taken by Urdu and Hindi and then borrowed by English in the mid 1600s, when England was getting more and more involved in India. German seems to have had initial exposure to the word from Persian, but it didn't really become more common in German until the 1700s as a borrowing from its cousin, English; and indeed, German used the spelling "Shawl," but later altered it to the more typical German phonetic spelling of "Schal." 

 

^ Chaliyam/Shaliat is in the Indian state of Kerala in southwestern India, along the part of the Indian Ocean known as the Arabian Sea. The main language there is Malayam, which is from the Dravidian family of languages (English is from the Germanic family of languages, which is from the broader Indo European language family).  

Indian Fried Cheese in Chili Gravy

Paneer is a compressed form of fresh cheese. It is available in cheese shops, Indian/Pakistani grocery stores and some supermarkets. It is very similar to farmer's cheese, and I've read that you can use farmer's cheese or tofu as a substitute, although I've never used either of these for this recipe. This is an Indian dish with Chinese influence. You can make it as mild or as spicy hot as you'd like, but at least I hope you'll use the ground red pepper to experience a little "kick" to the recipe. "Heat lovers" can add both the ground red pepper and 2 to 4 fresh hot chilies, which should keep their mouths blazing, their foreheads sweating and their moods happy. Some people make a batter to coat the cheese before frying it, but I've dry coated the paneer, although I've also made batter fried paneer. Both are wonderful, but I give this recipe the edge. Americans and Canadians, at least, would likely call the liquid part a "sauce," but the people of the Indian Subcontinent call it "gravy," and that's groovy by me. Good served with rice or with naan or roti bread.    

Ingredients (2 to 3 servings)

To fry the paneer:
1/2 to 2/3 pound paneer, cut into about 3/4 inch cubes
2 tablespoons cornstarch
3 tablespoons flour
1/2 teaspoon ground red pepper or hot paprika
1/2 teaspoon ground black or white pepper
1/2 teaspoon ground turmeric
1/4 teaspoon salt
3 tablespoons vegetable oil or canola oil (more if needed)

To make the gravy:
3 tablespoons vegetable oil or canola oil
1/2 cup chopped red bell pepper
1/2 cup chopped green bell pepper
3 green onions (with green), chopped
1 tablespoon grated/minced ginger
3 garlic cloves, minced
2 to 4 hot chilies (serranos or jalapeños are good), chopped (seeds removed if you prefer)
1 chopped Roma tomato (or medium tomato) with juice
1 tablespoon soy sauce
2 tablespoons ketchup
1 teaspoon ground hot red pepper (like cayenne)
1/2 teaspoon sweet paprika (the redder the bedder ... ah, better)
1/2 teaspoon ground black or white pepper
1 tablespoon butter 
1 tablespoon rice vinegar
1/2 teaspoon sugar 
1 cup water
1 1/2 tablespoons cornstarch well mixed with 3 to 4 tablespoons water  

To fry the paneer: In a bowl, add the cornstarch, flour, ground red pepper, ground white or black pepper, turmeric and salt, mix well. Add the paneer cubes to the dry mixture and gently turn to coat. Heat 3 tablespoons oil in a non-stick skillet over medium heat. Shake excess flour mixture from each paneer cube, then add the cubes to the skillet. Lightly brown the cheese cubes on all sides by frying for a total of about 4 minutes (do not overcook, or the cheese will become tough; just lightly brown it, and the outside will have a slightly firm texture, while the inside will remain nice and soft). Drain the paneer cubes on paper towels. To make the gravy: Have your ingredients lined up and ready to go. You can use the same skillet and just add enough oil to make about 3 tablespoons, heat the oil over medium heat, then add the green and red pepper and stir, then about 1 minute later add the chili peppers and stir, then add the grated ginger and minced garlic and stir well. After about 30 seconds, add the tomato and stir, then add the soy sauce, ketchup, ground red pepper, paprika, and ground white or black pepper, stir very well. Add the rice vinegar, the sugar and the butter, stir until the butter melts, then add the water, stirring well to get everything mixed together. Let the gravy cook until it bubbles, then begin stirring in the cornstarch/water mixture, and let the gravy thicken to your preferred level of thickness.     

With naan bread ...

WORD HISTORY:
Paneer (also "panir")-This word's ultimate origin is uncertain, but it goes back to Persian "pynl," which meant "cheese," in general. This then developed to transliterated Persian "panir," which was taken by Hindi/Urdu as transliterated "panir." This was borrowed by English, but I cannot determine when it was borrowed. The "Merriam-Webster Dictionary" says "1954" for first use in English, but I would believe the word to have been around earlier, although perhaps not in great usage. It is still not a terribly common word in American English, but it might be used more in British English because of Britain's colonial connection to India. I would think mainly people with knowledge of foods from the Indian subcontinent or cheese experts are most commonly familiar with it. Other sources do not even give a presumed date for an English borrowing.    

Mint Julep

"Juleps" have likely been around for a couple of centuries in one form or another, but the "Mint Julep" drink known to us for more than one hundred years is made with bourbon whiskey, a beverage strongly tied to the state of Kentucky. No question the name of the whiskey traces back to the former ruling family of France, the Bourbons, whose King Louis XVI provided aid to the American colonies in their fight for independence from Britain. The likely direct source of the name for the whiskey is Bourbon County, Kentucky, itself named for the French family. "Mint Juleps" have long been served at the famous "Kentucky Derby" horse race held at Churchill Downs in the city of Louisville, named after Louis XVI. "Mint Juleps" are often served in metal cups, where they are filled with lots of ice (usually crushed ice) and allowed to sit until the cup is well chilled or frosted before serving.    

Ingredients (per drink):

2 ounces bourbon
1 teaspoon sugar (or simple syrup*)
6 to 8 mint leaves (not tiny leaves)
ice
optional: bitters
sprig of mint for garnish

Gently rub the mint leaves together between your hands (this begins to release the mint flavor). Add the leaves to a cocktail glass, then add the sugar and bourbon (and a couple of drops of bitters, if you'd like). Mix to dissolve the sugar, then add lots of ice cubes or crushed ice. Naturally, if you use simple syrup, you needn't worry about dissolving the sugar. Let the drink sit for a couple of minutes until well chilled from the ice.  

* Simple syrup is often used to sweeten drinks in place of actually using dry sugar, which may not always dissolve completely. To make simple syrup: use one part sugar (1/2 cup, for example) mixed into an equal amount of water (1/2 cup) in a pan. Bring the mixture to a boil, stirring to dissolve the sugar. Remove from the heat and let the syrup cool before using.   

WORD HISTORY:
Julep-While the use of this word is relatively modern, the origin of this compound word is truly ancient. The first part of the word is distantly related to "rose," a word borrowed from Latin.^ The ultimate origin of the first part is uncertain, but it seems to trace back to Old Iranian "urda,"^^ meaning "flower" and "rose" (the flowering plant). This later gave transliterated Persian, another Indo European language, "gul" (rose). The second part of "julep" goes back to Indo European "ap/ep," which was another term for "water," often with the underlying meaning, "source of water" in some Indo European languages, words derived from it in several languages mean, "river," "channel or ditch for irrigation," "spring," "stream." This gave Persian "ap" (water), which was coupled in Persian with the above word "gul," as "gulab," meaning, "rosewater" (made by soaking rose petals in water), and the term was borrowed by Arabic as transliterated "julab," which was borrowed by Latin as "julapium" (rosewater, drink used for stomach ailments) and this passed to Old French as "julep," with the same meanings. English borrowed the word circa 1400 meaning, "sweet drink used as medicine, or used to make other medicines palatable." By the late 1700s the term was being used by some Americans for "a sweet alcoholic beverage (then usually made with rum or brandy) and herbs."  

^ "Rose" is a word with a complex history. While English borrowed it from Latin ("perhaps" from Christian monks or other religious personnel?), it is NOT a Latin-derived word, but rather a borrowing by Latin.

^^ Old Iranian was an Indo European language.     

Indian/Pakistani Ground Meat & Peas: Keema Mattar

The roots of this dish seem to date back at least a few hundred years to a time when the Muslim Mughals (see "Word History" below) controlled a good part of the Indian subcontinent; thus, the dish can also be made with ground ('keema' means 'mince,' sometimes now spelled 'qeema') beef, as well as either ground lamb or ground goat, with the latter two especially used by Hindus, as cows are respected in Hinduism, even among many Hindus who are not vegetarians. The general dish likely predates the tomato and chili pepper ingredients, the inclusion of which would have had to have been later, as tomatoes and chili peppers didn't arrive in India until the 1500s, taken there by the Portuguese from the New World. The Portuguese established a colony in western India (Goa).     

In England and other parts of Britain the term "coriander" is common for the parsley like plant, while in American English the term for the same plant is "cilantro," a borrowing from Spanish, and I dare say, many Americans would not likely know what you meant if you said "coriander."  

This dish is commonly served with rice and/or Indian breads, like chapati, naan or paratha, which is a layered bread "similar to," but not the same as, puff pastry.

Ingredients:

1 1/4 pounds ground lamb or ground beef
1 large onion, chopped
5 cloves garlic, chopped
2 inch piece ginger, peeled and grated or chopped
2 inch piece of cinnamon stick
5 whole cloves
3 tablespoons vegetable oil or clarified butter (ghee)
2  jalapeño or serrano chilies, chopped
2/3 teaspoon ground hot red pepper (like cayenne pepper)
1 tablespoon ground cumin
1 tablespoon ground coriander
1 teaspoon ground turmeric
1 teaspoon salt
4 tablespoons tomato paste
1 1/4 cups water 
1 1/2 cups peas
4 heaping tablespoons chopped fresh coriander (cilantro), divided use  

In a large skillet, heat the oil or ghee over medium heat. Add the cinnamon stick and cloves, saute about 30 to 45 seconds, then add the onion and cook about 2 to 3 minutes, then add the garlic, ginger, chilies, ground red pepper, cumin, ground coriander, turmeric, salt and cook for about another 4 minutes. Add the ground meat and cook for about 5 minutes. Mix the tomato paste with the water and add to the skillet, stirring to mix everything together well. Let the curry come to a boil, then reduce the heat a bit to keep the curry at a simmer. Cook for 20 minutes, until the meat is cooked, then add the peas and cook 6 to 8 minutes until they are cooked. Stir in 2 tablespoons chopped coriander/cilantro, then garnish each serving with some chopped coriander/cilantro.
 
With paratha bread, a layered flatbread ...  

WORD HISTORY:
Mogul-This word, meaning "rich and powerful person, usually a business person," goes back to the Persian form for "Mongol," usually transliterated as "Mughal." The Mughals established an empire in southern Asia in the 1500s, and their leaders claimed a heritage dating back to Mongol ruler Genghis Khan; thus, the connection to "Mongol." The Mughal emperor had the world famous Taj Mahal built in India during the 1600s. The word was borrowed into English in the second half of the 1600s, but the idea of the rich and powerful "Mughal" emperors in India led English to the meaning of a rich and powerful person, as "mogul."   

Shrimp with a Malaysian Touch

There are various recipes for shrimp in Malaysian cooking, and this is really my version of a recipe that sort of fits in with Malaysian style shrimp. As I note below, you don't have to go looking for special soy sauce, as you can use regular soy sauce, but just add a little molasses or brown sugar to sweet it up a bit. Further, you also don't need to buy curry leaves, an ingredient common in Malaysian and some other south Asian cooking. Curry leaves have nothing to do with curry powder. The leaves are a bit citrusy in taste, but you can substitute the zest of 1 1/2 limes. I first made this dish with tomato sauce and rice wine vinegar, but I had noticed some similar Malaysian recipes that simply used ketchup, so I tried it, and I found that I liked the ketchup version better. This dish was certainly not spicy hot, but rather the hot chili pepper gave it a little zip and that's what is intended; however, remember, as I've noted here before, hot chilies can vary tremendously in heat. I've actually had habanero chilies that were extremely mild, like a "1" on a scale of 1 to 10. On the other hand, I've had some jalapeño chilies that brought tears to my eyes. Further, cooking often reduces the punch of chilies a bit. Similar dishes in Malaysia are served with bread to help sop up the great sauce. 

Ingredients:

1 pound large shrimp, deveined
4 garlic cloves, finely chopped
2 tablespoons chopped or grated ginger
2/3 cup mild red chilies (red bell pepper is fine), chopped 
1 hot red chili pepper
12 to 15 curry leaves, or zest of 1 1/2 limes
2 tablespoons soy sauce*
2/3 cup ketchup
2 teaspoons sesame oil
3 to 4 tablespoons oil

Add oil to skillet and set over medium heat. Add garlic, ginger, mild chilies, hot chili and curry leaves. Cook until the ingredients soften, stirring often to prevent sticking or burning. Stir in the soy sauce, the ketchup and the sesame oil, mixing everything well. Add the shrimp and cook until just cooked through. Serve with rice or bread or both.

*  I used "Ketjap Manis," which is Indonesian soy sauce. It is syrupy and sweet. Some supermarkets or Asian markets will likely have "ketjap manis," but the keyword here is, "some." You can substitute regular soy sauce with some molasses, or even brown sugar, cooked together for just a few minutes.

Click on photo to enlarge ...

WORD HISTORY:
Shawl-The history of this word is difficult, but it "may" have originated from the textile town  "Shaliat" in southwestern India, also known as "Chaliyam, Saliyam, Chale." Historically that area of India was influenced by the Persians, Arabs and Portuguese. The idea is, "shawls" were produced in the town, which gave transliterated Persian "sal," seemingly originally with the meaning, "neck scarf." This was borrowed by Hindi and Urdu ^ and English borrowed the word in the mid 1600s with the heavy involvement of the English on the Indian Subcontinent. By the mid 1700s, the meaning had expanded to a "large piece of cloth used by women that is draped over the head that also covered the upper body." German borrowed the word from English as "Schal."  

^ Both Hindi and Urdu are Hindustani languages from the Indo-Aryan part of the Indo Iranian branch of Indo European. They are related to English, but much further down the family tree.

Indian Lamb Kebabs (Shami)

While many people likely think of "kebabs" (also spelled "kabobs" and "kababs") as being on skewers, they don't really have to be. These are delicate lamb patties with great flavor. Recipes vary somewhat, with the "bean" component sometimes being chickpeas, some type of lentil, or mung beans, with the latter being my choice for this dish. I've seen a recipe or two without any bean component. Beef is also used, but remember, practicing Hindus do not eat beef, but the substantial Muslim population of the Indian subcontinent does eat beef, and from what I understand, these kebabs are often made with beef in Muslim-majority Bangladesh, where they are very popular. Since the ingredients will be put into a food processor, it is not really necessary to finely chop everything. 

Ingredients:

1 1/2 pounds ground lamb
1 or 2 tablespoon oil or clarified butter (ghee)
1/2 cup yellow lentils or split mung/gram beans
water for cooking (about 1 1/2 cups, but whatever is needed)
1 cup chopped onion
4 cloves garlic, chopped
1  2 inch piece of ginger, chopped
2 teaspoons ground cumin
2/3 teaspoon turmeric
3 green chilies, chopped (jalapeño or serrano chilies are fine)
1/4 cup mint leaves, roughly torn or chopped
1/4 cup + 2 tablespoons chopped cilantro (also called fresh coriander or green coriander)
1 1/2 teaspoons salt
1 to 2 teaspoons cayenne pepper (according to your preference for heat)
2 teaspoons garam masala
lime wedges, onion cut into rings, mint chutney

Soak the beans for 20 to 30 minutes. Rinse. In a pan, add 1 or 2 tablespoons oil or clarified butter and heat over medium heat. Add the chopped onion, saute for 1-2 minutes. Add the garlic and ginger, stir well, then add the ground cumin, turmeric, green chilies and mint, saute about 1 minute. Add the beans or lentils, and add water to just cover. Turn down heat to medium low and cook at a gentle simmer until the beans/lentils are tender and the water is essentially gone. Let mixture cool a bit, then put it into a food processor. Add lamb, 1/4 cup cilantro, salt, cayenne pepper and garam masala. Process until all is well mixed and fine. Mix in the 2 tablespoons cilantro, but do not use the processor, so that it remains in larger pieces. Heat oven to 350 (F). Form the mixture into patties. Place patties on a baking sheet lined with aluminum foil. Bake patties for 45 to 55 minutes. If you want the patties a little crisp, pour off any grease and then place them under the broiler for about 45 seconds to a minute on each side. Often served with lime wedges, raw onion rings and/or mint chutney,* but accompaniments vary, often regionally. 

* You can find mint chutney in many supermarkets, but definitely in Indian/Pakistani grocery stores, or you can make your own. Here is the link to my recipe for mint chutney, which is very easy:  http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2017/07/indian-mint-chutney.html

WORD HISTORY: 
-stan-This is the word forming element for geographical entities, like "Pakistan." It goes back to Indo European "sta/steh," which had the notion of "stand, set in place." It is related to a large number of both original English words from Germanic like, "stand" and "stead," as well as borrowed words like, "stay." It is related to German "Stadt," originally meaning, "place," and then "city." The Indo European root produced Indo Iranian "sthanha," which meant, "place where one stands;" thus also, "where one dwells." This passed to Persian as, "stana," and to Sanskrit as "sthana," and eventually was used in Urdu and Hindi in India well before Pakistan and India separated. The meaning came to extend more directly to "place of," "home of" or "homeland of." Exactly when the term started to be added as a suffix to form geographic descriptions is unclear to me, but such are numerous: Afghanistan, Pakistan, Baluchistan (also spelled Balochistan), Uzbekistan, Hindustan and others.

Yogurt Drinks of the Indian Subcontinent, Part 1 of 4

A "lassi" * is a yogurt based drink of the Indian Subcontinent, seemingly developed in the Punjab region, a region of northern India and eastern Pakistan, but the drink spread to other parts of the subcontinent. The hot climate is ideal for these refreshing drinks, which often have ice cubes added to chill them well. There are several varieties, with the most basic being "Salted Lassi." The lassi goes well back in history, as long ago as 500 to 1000 BC, or perhaps even longer. Today, blenders or stick blenders are often used to give a lassi some froth. I'm going to do this as a multi-part article, with a couple of different recipes in each part. Besides being good, and being good for you, lassis are easy to make. There is also the use of yogurt based buttermilk on the Indian subcontinent, with "neer mor" being a spiced buttermilk drink of southern India, with "Chaas" being the term used more in the north, including in Pakistan and as "ghol" in the Bengali region of India and Bangladesh.

Salt(ed) Lassi-3/4 cup plain thick yogurt (Indian or Greek), 1/4 cup cold water, 1/3 teaspoon salt, a good pinch of ground cumin. Ice cubes for serving. Put the yogurt, the water, the salt and the cumin into a blender. Blend for about 30 seconds. There should be a nice foam topping. Pour over ice cubes in a glass.

* Usually pronounced in English like the name of the famous dog, "Lassie," but in Hindi and Urdu, it has a short "a," as in "father," and emphasis is on the second part of the word, as if, "lah-SEE." Hindi and Urdu are Indo European languages from the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo European. They are related to English, but further down the family tree. 

Saffron Lassi: This is a much richer drink: 3/4 cup plain thick yogurt (Indian or Greek style), 1/4 cup milk, 1/2 teaspoon ground cardamom, a good pinch of saffron strands soaked in two tablespoons of warm milk, a pinch of salt, 1 tablespoon honey, 1 or 2 tablespoons heavy cream, tablespoon crushed pistachios, 3 or 4 raisins, couple of ice cubes. Add the yogurt, milk, cardamom, saffron milk, honey and salt to a blender. Blend for about 30 seconds. Pour over a couple of ice cubes in a glass. Add a tablespoon or two of heavy cream on top, then sprinkle on the pistachios and raisins. 

WORD HISTORY: 
Pistachio-The ultimate origin of this word is unknown, but it goes back to transliterated Persian "pisteh," which was the name for the nut and for the tree. This was borrowed by Greek as transliterated "pistakion" ("pistake" for the tree), which was borrowed by Latin as "pistacium" ("pistachio nut"), which was passed onto Italian as "pistacchio," which was borrowed by French from Italian as "pistace," in the 1300s. English borrowed the word from French circa 1500, but then about one hundred years later English borrowed the Italian form, with the minor spelling adjustment to "pistachio," and this form prevailed.

Indian Mint Chutney

Chutneys are common throughout the Indian subcontinent and this is another good one, featuring mint. As with other chutneys, there are variations to this recipe, with one variation being that some do not use yogurt, but use only water to make mint chutney.

Ingredients:

1/4 cup plain yogurt (Indian or Greek style yogurt, which are thicker, will make it more authentic)
3/4 cup fresh coriander
1  2/3 cups fresh mint leaves
1/4 cup chopped onion
1 serrano or jalapeno chili pepper, chopped
3 cloves of garlic, chopped
1 tablespoon fresh ginger
1 tablespoon Indian curry powder
2 tablespoons lemon juice
1/2 teaspoon salt (or black salt, if you have it)*

Because everything will be processed/blended, the ingredients do not have to be uniformly chopped/cut. Add all ingredients into a blender/food processor and blend briefly to form more of a chunky paste.

* There are a few types of black salt, including one used in black magic and is not for consumption. Hawaiian black salt has charcoal mixed in. Indian black salt has a sulfur (British English: sulphur)  content. It is fairly commonly used in the cooking of the Indian subcontinent. Indian black salt is available in "some" supermarkets, "some" herb and spice shops, Asian shops or Indian/Pakistani product shops, as well as online. Both Hawaiian and Indian black salts are believed by some to have health benefits.

Mint chutney with some Indian style flatbread

WORD HISTORY:
Cummerbund-This is a compound word, with the first part going back to Indo European "khemm," which had the notion of, "bend, twist, curve." This gave Persian^ the transliterated "kamar," which meant, "waist" (get it? "curved part of the body"). The second part of this word, "bund," is related to "bind," "band" and "bound." It traces back to the Indo European root "bhendh," which had the notion of "tying up something." This gave transliterated Persian "band," "something that binds." The Persian compound was thus, "kamarband;" that is, "cloth that binds around the waist." This passed into Hindi and Urdu^^ as the transliterated "kamarband," and English borrowed the term in the early 1600s. German later borrowed the word from English as, "Kummerbund."

^ Persian is from the Indo Iranian branch of the Indo European family of languages. It is related to English, but much further down the family tree.

^^ Both Hindi and Urdu are Hindustani languages from the Indo-Aryan part of the Indo Iranian branch of Indo European. They are related to English, but much further down the family tree. 

Red Pepper Relish: Serbian & Croatian Ajvar/Ljutenica

Ajvar, essentially pronounced as if "eye-var," and "ljutenica," pronounced as if, "loot-en-eetsa," are types of relish often used as condiments in Serbia, Croatia and in other parts of the Balkans. Recipes vary somewhat by region, but "ljutenica" is the spicy hot version of the relish in most areas. So you can make it mild or spicy hot, as you wish. It is used on sandwiches and burgers, as well as just spread onto slices of bread. When I was a kid, Serbia was often written as, "Servia," and Serbian was often written as, "Servian," but those variant spellings ceased decades ago; at least, to my knowledge. 

2 pounds roasted sweet red bell peppers, or store bought roasted peppers
1 small to medium roasted eggplant (aubergine), about 1/2 to 3/4 pound
1 medium ripe tomato, roughly chopped 
3 tablespoons olive oil
6 cloves garlic
1 tablespoon hot (or mild) Hungarian paprika
1 hot chili pepper 
2 tablespoon white vinegar
1 teaspoon salt
1/2  teaspoon black pepper
pinch or two of sugar

To roast the peppers and eggplant: heat the oven to 450 F. While the oven is heating up, wash and cut the peppers and eggplant in half. Remove the stems and seeds from the peppers. You can rub a little olive oil onto each, if you wish. Place the vegetables cut side down on a baking sheet lined with parchment paper or aluminum foil. Roast for about 25 to 30 minutes, until the skin on the peppers begins to blacken in spots (the eggplant skin will get a wrinkled look to it). Let the peppers cool a bit, then peel off the skin. You can scoop out the eggplant and toss the skin away, along with the pepper skins.
   
Put all ingredients into a food processor or blender and process until still a little chunky, although some make it into a smooth paste. Often used in the Balkans on burgers there called "pljeskavice." For that recipe, here is the link: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2017/07/pljeskavica-serbian-burgers.html

WORD HISTORY: 
Aubergine-There is some slight uncertainty about the history of this word, and its ultimate origin is not known, although a Dravidian language may be the source. ^ It goes back to transliterated Sanskrit "vatigagama," ^^ which meant "eggplant." This gave Persian "badingan/badengan," which was borrowed by Arabic ^^^ as transliterated "al-badinjan," and with the continued meaning "eggplant." Large parts of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) were conquered by the Arabic speaking Moors, from northwestern Africa, and this brought the word to the various languages/dialects of Iberia in sometimes slightly different forms. French borrowed the word as "alberge/albergen(?), "perhaps" from a form in Catalan, which then became "aubergine," and English borrowed the word in the very late 1700s, and it finally overtook the word "eggplant" in England and Britain, although "eggplant" remained as the main word, and still does, in the United States and, I believe, in Canada, although "aubergine" is likely used by French speaking Canadians. I dare say that quite a number of Americans would be at a loss if someone told them, "We just bought a nice aubergine." German, a close relative of English, used "eierpflanze" (egg/eggs plant), before borrowing "aubergine" from French in just the past century, although some southern dialects use "Melanzani," a borrowing from nearby Italian. The idea behind the naming of the produce as "eggplant" comes from the oval shaped white eggplant looking like eggs, and the name carried over to the purple color produce too.   

^ Dravidian is a language family of southern Asia, principally with languages spoken in the south of India. English belongs to the Indo European family of languages, and then the Germanic branch of Indo European.
  
^^ Sanskrit is an ancient language from the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo European; thus, it is related to English, although much further down the family tree. It is still in use to some degree, especially in India.

^^^ Arabic is from the Semitic languages, the most common of which are Arabic, Amharic, Hebrew and Tigrinya. Arabic and Hebrew are commonly known in much of Europe and North America, but Amharic is spoken in a large part of Ethiopia. Tigrinya is also spoken in parts of Ethiopia and Eritrea, another East African nation. 

Spinach & Kale Soup

Ingredients:

1/2 pound baby spinach
1/2 pound kale
1 medium carrot, chopped
1 teaspoon salt (if you use canned or carton vegetable stock, you may not want to add any salt)
1 tablespoon butter
1 tablespoon canola or vegetable oil
32 ounces vegetable or chicken stock
2/3 cup Riesling wine (a Spätlese is good, but certainly not mandatory)
1 12 ounce can evaporated milk
3 tablespoons flour + 3 tablespoons water
3 slices white bread, cubed
2 cloves of garlic, minced
2 tablespoons butter or oil (or mixed)

In a pan, heat the butter and oil until the butter melts. Add the carrot and let cook for a minute or two. The carrot will be the only thing that really needs to cook much to soften it. Tear or cut the kale and spinach into somewhat smaller pieces, making sure to remove the thicker stems from the kale. Keep a small amount of the two greens to top the soup when serving, and add the bulk to the pot, let it wilt. Add the vegetable stock, the salt and the Riesling wine, stir well. At the first sign of bubbling, remove the pan from the heat and gradually stir in the canned milk. Mix the flour and water well. Return the soup to the heat, until it bubbles lightly. Gradually add the flour and water mixture to the soup, stirring constantly. You want the soup to thicken some, but not too much. To make some croutons, add the butter or oil to a skillet, then add the bread cubes, turning to coat and brown them. Add some of your freshly made croutons and a few fresh leaves of spinach and kale to the top of each serving.

WORD HISTORY:
Spinach-The ultimate origin of this word is unknown, although it goes back to Persian, an Indo European language, which had, "aspanakh," which meant "spinach," and it is "possible" that Persian developed the word on its own. This was borrowed into Arabic as "isbanakh." Now we get back to difficult again, as tracing the history of this word is very difficult. How the word got into Europe? It is possible it came from different routes, as the Latin of the Middle Ages had "spinachium," "perhaps" from Saracens (Arabic people). Did this then pass to into Latin-based languages, Provençal ("espinarc") and Old French ("espinoche"), and then into Spanish ("espinaca")?  Did the Moors, a Berber people of the Muslim faith (with heavy influence of Arabic) from northwestern Africa in the Middle Ages, carry the word with them when they invaded Spain (a form there was "asbinakh," which eventually passed into Catalan ("espinac") and Spanish? Still more questions, and how did the word actually get into English? Via French ? Via Dutch ("spinaetse"), which had borrowed it from French. It came into broader use in the 1500s in English.

What's In A Name? Nathan, Margaret, Marguerite, Margarita

The male name "Nathan" is derived from Hebrew "natan," which meant "gave;" thus perhaps, "gift of/from God." The name came into English from Christianity and the use of names from the Bible.

The female name "Margaret" is the more common spelling in English, but the name has various forms, some of which are forms from other languages, but which are used in English speaking countries, some examples: "Marguerite" in French, "Margherita" in Italian and "Margarita" in Spanish (see Word History below). It goes back to Greek "margarites," which meant "pearl," but which likely was borrowed by Greek from Persian "morwarid" (meaning "pearl").* Latin borrowed the word from Greek as "margarita," which spawned a number of variant names forms in the Latin-based languages, including Old French "Margarete." English borrowed the name circa 1200. The Italian form of the name is also used for a style of pizza with tomato sauce, basil and cheese, supposedly produced in the 1880s for Queen Margherita, the wife of the Italian king, Umberto. The red sauce, the green basil and the white cheese are the colors of the Italian flag. The Spanish form of the name, "Margarita," is also used for a tequila-based cocktail, likely invented in Mexico, but highly popular in the United States.**

I consulted the following, so for more information on any of the names see, "A World Of Baby Names" by Teresa Norman, published by Perigee/Penguin Group, New York, 2003. And I consulted, "A Greek-English Lexicon," by Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, Roderick McKenzie, and Eric Arthur Barber, published by Oxford/Clarendon Press, 1940.

* Persian is a language from Indo Iranian, a branch of Indo European, thus it is related to English, but much further down the family tree, as English is from the Germanic branch of Indo European.

** For more on the history of the Margarita, see: http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/the-history-of-the-margarita-57990212/?no-ist

WORD HISTORY:
Pearl-The more distant history of this word is unknown, but it goes back to Latin "perna," which meant "upper thigh, ham, leg," but it was used in some dialectal Latin-speaking Mediterranean areas for the name of mollusks, like clams and oysters, "seemingly" because many thought the shells resembled a "ham," or because they have a "foot" (leg), to move. Of course some such mollusks had pearls, and the word "pernula" was derived from "perna" as a diminutive ^ as the name for the product of these mollusks, "a pearl." ^^ Old French, a Latin-based language, got the term from Latin as "perle," and English borrowed it from French in the 1300s.

^ A diminutive is a word that makes something smaller or dearer; for example, duck, but duckling, pig, but piglet, both make the main animal smaller/younger, but diminutives can be for inanimate objects, like part, but particle; red, but reddish. As for making a word convey endearment, mother, but mom, and further, mommy. Often used for names, like John, but Johnny, Cynthia, but Cindy.

^^ The general Latin word for "pearl" long ago was "margarita."

Help Limit The Power Of The Rich & Powerful-VOTE!

Those old enough should remember Ross Perot's remark about the trade legislation of the early and mid 1990s, that it would cause a "large sucking sound" of American jobs being sent elsewhere.* Actually the "sucking sound" has been around for decades now, but we just didn't realize what it was, or maybe we just didn't want to know what it was. It has been the sound of money and wealth being sucked out of the wallets, pocketbooks, bank accounts, and home values of just about everyone living on the under side of a million bucks, give or take a few hundred thousand. A TREMENDOUS transfer of wealth has been taking place. Don't look the other way anymore folks, because this is serious. Reality can be tough to face, but if you supported, or "turned a blind eye to" the policies of the past three plus decades, don't be ashamed to admit your mistake. It is NOT too late, but action must come soon.

We barely escaped a total worldwide economic meltdown comparable to the Great Depression, and probably worse, just a few years ago. Why? Many people worldwide took time to forget all of the scare tactics used "to keep them in line" for the conservative; that is, wealthy interests' cause. Money was pumped into the world economy to avert an even more serious downturn, and an even "Greater Depression" instead became the "Great Recession." We are NOT out of the woods! The world economy is still hanging by a thread, and the rightwing elitists around the world have counterattacked by declaring "austerity" is the only way out; of course, "austerity" means YOU have to give up money or wealth and tighten your belt, not the wealthiest among us. Quite the contrary, we are still being fed the nonsense that "we" need to give tax cuts to wealthy people, because they are "the job creators." With all of the tax cuts given the rich over the past thirty plus years, we should be advertising on Mars for "help wanted," as there should be a labor shortage here on Earth. Conservatives keep telling us we have to give tax cuts to rich folks, or we're going to go to hell in a hand basket. Not only that, but we should further remove regulations on the Interests so they'll give us jobs. It is time for us to take matters into OUR hands, not leave things in the hands of the greediest of the greedy. We DO have potential power, but we're not united in the cause to have some control over our own lives. Giving more money to the wealthy is not going to solve our problems. For a variety of reasons, including OUR own mistakes,** we have UNDER consumption, not OVER consumption of goods and services.*** If you own a small business, this should very much concern you. You need customers! There's a major limit to how many products and services the wealthy can buy from you. Remember folks, we're all in this together. I've been in business myself, so I'm NOT anti-business. Don't be fooled by this "If you don't support tax cuts for the rich, and the repeal of every regulation in sight, you're anti-business." That's absolute NONSENSE!

If you are not registered to vote, or if you are registered, but haven't updated your address or other information with your voter registration officials (usually done by counties), please do so NOW! DON'T WAIT! Also, find out IN DETAIL (and I'd suggest, IN WRITING) what you need to be able to vote when you go to the polls (photo ID or whatever), or to vote absentee (now often done by mail). Don't think because you did this or that in the last election that things are necessarily the same. Some states have changed their laws. Don't risk being turned away from the polls, or having your ballot being challenged, and perhaps not counted, by not complying with the existing laws. Not liking the law changes is not an excuse! Like it, not like it, Republicans have tried to restrict voting under the guise of trying to keep non citizens from voting. I don't want non citizens to vote either, but I don't want eligible voters to be deprived of their basic rights over technicalities. Also, DON'T BE DISCOURAGED by any registration or voting law changes in your state. That's what they're hoping for! They DON'T want YOU to vote! The fewer average and poor people who vote, the bigger the impact of those in the upper incomes and their misguided allies. Don't cede your voice to others by not voting!

* Ross Perot became a billionaire at a time of more overall regulation of the American economy and when income distribution was far less concentrated. Hm, wonder how he did it?

** Remember too, purist capitalists and free marketers have shunned any responsibility for the economic mess. They have chosen to rewrite the Old Testament as "In the beginning, January 20, 2009, God created the heavens and the Earth." Don't be like these money-grubbing, irresponsible superegos. We all have made mistakes, and we need to acknowledge that.

*** I am working on another related article that will deal with the question of whether purist capitalism can provide broad-based prosperity for a considerable length of time, without war(s). To be clear, communism failed! So what about its counterpart?

WORD HISTORY:
Rook-English has two basic words "rook." The first "seems" to go back to Indo European "krokh/krekh," which may have meant "crow, blackbird," although ancient Sanskrit, an early form of Indo European, had a word that meant "male bird, rooster." This gave Old Germanic "(k)hrokaz," which meant "crow." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "hroc," with the same meaning. This later became "rok," before the modern spelling. The word is seldom used anymore, at least not in the U.S. or Canada. By the late 1500s, this gave English a verb form, meaning "to cheat," perhaps from the notion of the bird "stealing food from other birds." When I was a kid, it was common to hear "I got rooked," or "Don't rook me," but I don't often hear the word as much anymore. Forms of the word in the other Germanic languages have all either died out, or like their English relative, they are seldom used. Interestingly, German has the now little used noun "Ruch," which means "poorly thought of by others, bad reputation," but whether this is a relative of the English word, I'm not certain, although the idea of the English meaning "cheat" and the German meaning "bad reputation" are certainly similar.

The second, and more common modern word "rook," meaning "a playing piece for chess," has an unclear origin, although it seems to trace back to Hindi "rut," the name used for "a playing piece representing chariot mounted forces in the original game of chess," as chess originated in India at least 1500 years ago.^ The Persians borrowed the game and the word as "rukh." Later, when Persia was conquered by Muslims, Arabic borrowed the word as "rukhkh." The spread of Islam into southwestern Europe eventually spread the game and the word to give Old French "roc," and this was borrowed into English in the late 1200s or early 1300s.

^ The original game from India was based upon military forces; thus, "chariot mounted forces" (they also used pieces to represent cavalry, infantry and elephant mounted forces). The later change in the names of the game pieces in Europe (as in "Bishop" and "Knight") came as the Church and nobility were powerful forces in European society. Hindi is an Indo European language related to English further down the family tree, as is Persian.

Help! I'm Stepping Into The Twilight Zone

This was first published in September 2009. Just a note April 21, 2017: Trump would fit very easily into this story, with Tweets and unsubstantiated claims.

The title refers to the opening line of a former hit song by "Golden Earring," a Dutch rock group. But this isn't about music, rock or otherwise. It is about the old television series Rod Serling's "The Twilight Zone," and an episode from 1962 called "Four O'clock." This episode starred Theodor Bikel as a kooky, self righteous, hate-filled spewer of nonsense, who anointed himself to punish and identify all the "evil people" by shrinking them to the size of the average kid's doll. This was to take place at "Four O'clock."

This demented man lived with his parrot in a dingy, small apartment where he kept a file on each person's supposed transgressions, no matter how trivial. He spent his days thinking about the latest conspiracy invented within his twisted mind, or sending anonymous letters and making anonymous calls to employers, for example, divulging the content of an employee's file, such as, "Your Mr. Jones is a communist sympathizer," and demanding that the person be fired. Of course, he never told the employer HOW he knew any of the information he provided, answering only, "Never mind how I know!" Of course the employers hung up on him, but at four o'clock he was going to set things right, all by himself.

It's a shame this episode wasn't filmed in 1965, as this secret avenger could have accused anyone who even dared to say a good thing about the newly created Medicare system as being a Commie, or at the very least, a socialist (Ah, come to think of it, maybe he did exist, just in the form of some other people). Or what if the show were filmed now? Hmm, WOW... lots of targets for him, including me, I'm proud to say! Ahh, but is it being filmed now with all of the nasty, distorted, divisive disinformation being thrown out there, sometimes anonymously via emails, for instance, and sometimes in person, as at town hall meetings? The 1962 character lives on in these people today, only it isn't just a television show anymore. This is real!

If you've never seen the above mentioned episode of the Twilight Zone and don't want to know the ending, stop reading now! I don't feel right leaving readers hanging there, without knowing the ending.

As the clock struck four and his parrot squawked, this hate-filled man peered from his window and proclaimed to his parrot that all the evil people were now shrinking. But in an instant, the man found himself looking up at his parrot, having shrunk to the size of a Barbie Doll, or I guess, a Ken Doll.

The other day (this was in 2009), I believe it was in New Jersey, there was a town hall meeting. I don't recall if the congressional person was a Democrat or a Republican, but there was a lady in a wheel chair who told of her crippling illness and how she needs help for her condition. In the midst of hoots and shouts at her, she tried to continue. One man, kind of a big burly guy, who obviously was far from underfed, told one of the reporters something like, "Listen to this...even a handicapped person has more rights than I have!" Hmm...I wonder if that guy stopped his clock at 3:59?

Word History:
Rice-This word came to English during the 1200s (one source says during the 1230s). Some linguists feel "rice" ultimately traces back to an oriental origin, but that sources are lacking to confirm that. In Indo European, it does seem to go back to Sanskrit "vrihi/vrihi-s," (first "i" with long sound) which meant/means "rice." Sanskrit, a relative of English much further down the family tree, still exists, although on a limited basis, mainly religious, especially in India, but its history takes it back many, many centuries ago in that southern part of Asia. Presumably, Old Persian got their word for rice, "brizi," from Sanskrit. Old Persian was the ancestor of Persian, one of the main languages of Persia, now called Iran. Persian is also an Indo European language related to English, but again, much further down the family tree, but more closely related to Sanskrit and to Hindi, one of the main languages of India. It seems that Greek picked up the word from one of these old languages as "oryza" (no, not Ore-Ida!), and it then was picked up by Latin as "oriza." Old French, a Latin-based language, continued with "ris," and presumably that is how English got the word, but Greek brought the word to Europe, and for example, German has "Reis," Polish has "ryz," Welsh has "reis," Lithuanian has "rysai," Italian has "riso," and Spanish has "arroz" (as compared to the old Latin form "oriza;" so, much closer).

The Word On Some Other People

Regular readers will recall that I recently did a series of articles about why we use the names we do for various groups of people. I stuck with names of some of the Germanic groups, as these groups are more closely related to English, which is a Germanic language. Now, I'll move on to some other groups.

Greek-For such an influential group of people, the history of this word is a bit obscure. For quite some time, these folks were known as "Hellenes," the name of a particular ancient tribe, but it seems that Aristotle began the use of "Graikhos" in place of "Hellenes." The question is, "Why?" Some linguists claim that an ancient group of people called the Illyrians (essentially the ancestors of modern Albanians) used a form of this word for the people living in and around Epirus (a Greek city), but other linguists aren't so sure, with some claiming that it came from ancient Greek settlers from a coastal town named "Graia," who then crossed over into southern Italy, there encountering the Romans. The Romans then used "Graeci" as their own word for all "Greeks." Whatever the origins of the word, Old Germanic picked up a form of the word from Latin "Graeci;" Old Greek had "Grakoi." In Old English is was "Crecas," a plural form, with the "c" pronounced with the hard sound, like "k." Gothic, another Germanic language now extinct, had "Kreks." Later in English, the "C" became "G," and the spelling was therefore altered to "Grecas," before the modern spelling was adopted. I should note that the Romans took a number of words from Greek, and eventually some of these words found their way into other languages, including English (See "Turk," below). Also, Greek is an Indo European language, related to English further down the family tree.

Hun-The Chinese called these people from central Asia "Han" (short "a," like in "father") and "Hiong-nu." Turkic groups called them "Hunyu," which seems to have been picked up by Latin as "Hunni." It would seem that English got the word from Latin, and in Old English is was "Hunas," a plural form, with the "u" being long. The Huns came roaring into Europe during the 4th and 5th Centuries, A.D., and their one leader has been famous the world over, "Attila," usually known in English with the addition of "the Hun." The Huns eventually settled down and operated out of an area in southeastern Europe, and the area therefore became known as Hungary, in English, from Latin "Hungaria, but Latin seems to have gotten the word from Greek "Oungroi." Another group of people, the Magyars, who were related to the Huns, eventually moved into this area, but the name stuck, and the country is still called Hungary and the people Hungarians, although these people don't use either term, but rather a form of Magyar for both.