The German Question, Part One Hundred Twenty-Five

"Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/B"
"Foreign Policy & The German Question" (Part Five/2)
"Germans In Czechoslovakia" (Part 2)

Hitler seems to have wanted to deal with Czechoslovakia first, and let Austria become part of Germany by natural course; that is, Austrians wanted to become part of Germany so much, that the Austrian government would eventually let it happen, and by that time, with many Nazis in top positions, the "coordination" between Germany and Austria would have been so great, that Austria would not really have been an independent country anyway. Schuschnigg's plebiscite announcement took Hitler by surprise and by sending in troops, Hitler looked aggressive, even though there was huge support in Austria for its becoming part of Germany, and there was no fighting whatsoever.*

Czechoslovakia, but especially the Sudetenland, provided Hitler with three potential benefits: 1) uniting more Germans with Germany (there were more than three million Germans in the Sudetenland); 2) removing a well trained and equipped army from a nation with close ties to Britain and France that jutted into Germany; and 3) depriving Czechoslovakia of defensive positions along its border areas, leaving the nation vulnerable to attack afterward.**

Czechoslovakia needed the support of Britain and France, but these countries were in western Europe, and neither had moved to do anything to help Schuschnigg. The French government had been in a state of confusion when the Austrian events took place, as the previous government had fallen just days before the Austrian situation fully developed, but the new French government was willing to call up some troops to put pressure on Hitler, "IF" Britain consented. Britain did not respond, so nothing happened.***

* This is not to "whitewash" Hitler. It just seems that, at that point in time, he believed Austria would become part of Germany without the use of force, until Schuschnigg's action, after which he sent in troops. Now, some say this exposed him to the world for what he was, a megalomaniac willing to use force to achieve his goals, and I would agree with that, but I'm just saying that, in this particular case, Schuschnigg's announcement of a vaguely worded plebiscite forced Hitler's hand. Remember, Germany was not a democratic nation subject to debating such issues. If Hitler was "offended" by some action, like Schuschnigg's, that was it, he could act without consent from anyone. Forget the "morality" arguments. I understand those arguments, but Hitler wasn't interested in morality, except when it worked in his favor, as we'll see in the very near term regarding Germans in Czechoslovakia, and later, elsewhere.

** Because the vast bulk of the German population of Czechoslovakia lived in the border regions called the Sudetenland, if Hitler could get these areas ceded to Germany, Czechoslovakia's defensive positions would also be removed, because, naturally, that's where the border defenses were. By the way, the Czech army was highly respected, as were some of their weapons of that time, including tanks.

*** In fairness, the British and French have taken a lot of criticism for their "inaction" at various times regarding Hitler's aggressiveness, but there was not a hell of a lot they could really do. Would they go to war for Austria, a German country that openly and cheerfully welcomed Hitler and German troops over the border? Would you go into such a war, or would you want to send your kids to fight such a war? After World War One, France wanted provisions in the treaties and in the new borders drawn throughout much of Europe to make them feel safer from any future German attack (they were always fearful the Germans would come back after Alsace-Lorraine). The problem was, the new boundaries were not based upon Woodrow Wilson's principle of self determination for the various ethnic groups, but rather (surprise!), by politics and self interest (I'm shocked!). These moves left "German" Austria out of Germany, even though sentiment in both countries was for unification; it left more than three million Germans in Czechoslovakia, and cranky as hell over it; left lots of Germans in Poland and equally cranky, and put the overwhelmingly German city of Danzig under a League of Nations Commissioner, but economically dependent upon Poland. Once an aggressive leader like Hitler took power, who seemed much more concerned with actually seeking remedies for German grievances (real or perceived) than just complaining, the fuse on the powder keg was just waiting for the match.

WORD HISTORY:
Health-This word, closely related to "whole," goes back to Indo European "koilos/kailo," which meant "healthy, unharmed, in a sound condition/state, complete/entire." This then gave Old Germanic "(k)hailitho," with the sense of "wholeness, state of being unharmed or damaged." This then gave Anglo-Saxon (Old English) "haelth," meaning "the state of being whole, being sound." Later it was spelled "helthe," before acquiring the modern spelling. See this article for forms of the word in the other Germanic languages: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2011/07/german-question-part-one-hundred-twenty_31.html

Understand, the other Germanic languages do not always use their forms with the exact same meaning as English "health," but they all revolve around "being whole, wholeness."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Twenty-Three

"Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/B
"Foreign Policy & The German Question" (Part Four/3)
"Hitler Goes Home; Austria Joins Germany" (Part 3)

Just a little over a week after Hitler and Schuschnigg signed their agreement in February 1938,* Hitler gave a speech to the Reichstag (the German Parliament).** He thanked Chancellor Schuschnigg for his efforts over their recent agreement, but he also threw in lines about how Austrian sentiment to join Germany after the Great War (World War I) had been stopped by the Versailles Treaty, and how "ten million" Germans were being kept separate from other Germans.*** The speech brought more calls by Austria's Nazis for joining with Germany. By March, Schuschnigg made a decision that brought everything to a head. He announced on March 9th that a plebiscite (referendum) would be held on March 12th! Whether such a vote could have even been held on such short notice is questionable, but he cleverly worded the ballot issue to make it almost impossible for anyone to vote "No."****

Having thus tweaked Hitler's nose, Schuschnigg now paid the price. Hitler met with his military commanders and ordered them to cross the border into Austria early on March 12. German forces, aided by Austrian border guards, took down the barriers and streamed into Austria, to the jubilation of much of the populace. Hitler followed soon afterwards, driving through hysterical crowds who presented him with bouquets of flowers. He visited his birthplace just over the, now previous, border in Braunau-am-Inn and the city of Linz where he had spent much time as a boy. German radio and press reports (controlled by the Nazis) stated that German troops were only helping to restore order, but during a speech in Linz, Hitler announced that Austria was being incorporated into Germany. It was then on to Vienna and ecstatic crowds, and ringing church bells. The call to German nationalism was strong, and in Austria, where unemployment was high, people hoped for a better life. They got it in many ways, as unemployment dropped dramatically in less than a year, but they also got the ugly side; Jews beaten and arrested, anti-Nazi politicians (including Schuschnigg*****) arrested, and worse was to come.

Just a few weeks later, Hitler, in an ironic turn of events, used a national plebiscite to sanction Austria's absorption into Germany, with more the 99% voting "Ja." (Interestingly, the "Ja" vote in what had been Austria was a couple of tenths of a point higher than in the rest of Germany.)

* Schuschnigg later claimed he had been bullied into signing the agreement, and that is undoubtedly true, but he also signed the agreement undoubtedly to keep himself in office.

** Hitler kept the Reichstag to use for important speeches and ceremonial purposes. It was really no longer a true legislative body, and of course, it had only one party represented, the Nazis. After the damaging fire to the Reichstag Building in 1933, the Reichstag met in the Kroll Opera House ("Krolloper," in German) in Berlin, but only when summoned by Hitler.

*** Austria had about 6.5 million people and the German population of Czechoslovakia was about 3.5 million. He seems to have already been setting up a situation to deal with Czechoslovakia.

**** He used terms like "independent, German Austria," and "Fatherland."

***** Schuschnigg was not freed from captivity until the end of World War II. He later went to America, where he was a teacher, but returned to Austria where he died in 1977, just short of his 80th birthday.

WORD HISTORY:
Hail-This is the noun meaning "frozen rain/frozen precipitation/ice pellets." It goes back to an Indo European word for "pebble," which was "khaglo/kaghlo." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "hag(a)laz," which meant "hail." This gave Anglo-Saxon "haegl" and "hagol" (according to dialect). The "g" sound eventually died out, leaving English with "hail." The verb came from the noun and in Anglo-Saxon was "hagolian," and meant "to hail." Common throughout the other Germanic languages: German has "Hagel" (originally "hagal"), Low German also has "Hagel," and some dialects "hoagel," West Frisian has "heil" (notice the missing "g," as in English), Dutch has "hagel," Norwegian, Icelandic and Danish have "hagl," and Swedish has "hagel."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Twenty-Two

"Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/B
"Foreign Policy & The German Question" (Part Four/2)
"Hitler Goes Home; Austria Joins Germany" (Part 2)

Kurt (von)* Schuschnigg, the Austrian chancellor, cracked down on the Austrian Nazis, and he had a number of them imprisoned. Seemingly, the sentiment, however, in a good deal of Austria, and in much of Germany, was for "Anschluss;" Austria joining with Germany, and this was NOT just among Nazis. Schuschnigg met Hitler in 1936 and an agreement was the result. Schuschnigg agreed to release Nazis from prison and to permit Austrian Nazis and other political opponents into his government** and he agreed that Austria was a "German nation;" thus attempting to keep Italy at arms length. Hitler, for his part, agreed that Austria was an "independent nation." Hitler undoubtedly assumed that once Nazis and other proponents of "Anschluss" entered the Austrian government, Austria's joining Germany would soon follow, in spite of his stating that Austria was an "independent nation" in the agreement.

Over time, the Austrian Nazis grew in strength and stridency and Austrian public sentiment became overwhelming for "Anschluss." In February 1938, Schuschnigg met Hitler at Berchtesgaden,*** which was just over the Austro-German border. Hitler demanded that Austrian Nazis be given important positions in Schuschnigg's government, especially the "Minister of the Interior" position, which controlled the police, and the "Minister of Finance." His goal seems to have been to begin a process of coordinating Austrian policies with Germany, even though Austria would be left sovereign, at that point in time. Schuschnigg agreed, indeed, Schuschnigg signed another agreement, as did the Austrian president.**** Hitler's part of the agreement condemned the rowdy and belligerent tactics of the Austrian Nazis, and he agreed to accept unwanted Austrian Nazis in Germany, which he did.***** "Anschluss" drew closer.

* "Von" is used in German to denote nobility; for example, Rudolf "von" Habsburg; that is, "Rudolf of Habsburg." It means "of or from." If you have read (or seen the movie[s]) "Ivanhoe," then you should recall the equivalent in English, "Wilfred of Ivanhoe." Following World War One, the Austrians terminated the use of "von" in names (Germany did not), even for the Habsburgs; thus, Schuschnigg dropped the "von" from his name. It is also spelled "van" in some northern dialects.

** Austria was ruled, literally, by the chancellor. He issued decrees, and there was only one political party permitted, the "Christian Social Party" (German: "Christlichsoziale Partei"), initially a nationalist party that became ever more a right wing party that gradually assumed some of the characteristics of Mussolini's Fascist Party in Italy. (Note: Austria was overwhelmingly Roman Catholic, and there was much "mixing" of religion and politics.) The Christian Social Party formed a sort of alliance with the "Heimwehr" ("Home Defense"), a right wing paramilitary and political group, which provided "muscle" to the alliance. One of the Christian Social Party's weaknesses, however, was its ties to Italy, including Italian support and "protection" of Austria. Remember, Mussolini sent Italian troops to the border to prevent Hitler from sending German forces into Austria in 1934. The reason I say this was a "weakness" is, Italy and Italians were not popular in Austria. Italy had been the major enemy of Austria-Hungary in World War One (and a major enemy even before), and upon the end of the war, for her participation on the Allied side, Italy was given the South Tirol, which contained a substantial German population, with large German majorities in the northern areas and some Italian majority areas in the southern districts.

*** Berchtesgaden is a small Bavarian town in the Alps, literally right near the border with Austria. Hitler had his villa there, called the "Berghof." The city of Salzburg lies less than 20 miles away, and after the Anschluss, the Salzburg airport was used by many of Hitler's visitors to his villa, but Hitler also used Klessheim Palace to host many foreign dignitaries. The palace, still in existence, is just outside the Salzburg city limits.

**** Austria had a president who served as "head of state," and he therefore had to sign all international agreements. Wilhelm Miklas was the president at that time, and he too was a member of the Christian Social Party.

***** Hitler got the Austrian Nazi leaders and lambasted them for their behavior, but apparently even he had trouble controlling them.

WORD HISTORY:
Home-This noun is common in its various forms throughout the Germanic languages. It is related to "hamlet," a word borrowed by English from French, which had it from Germanic Frankish. The ultimate origin of "home" is not agreed upon by everyone, but it "appears" to go back to the Indo European root "tkei/tkey," which meant "to dwell, to settle, to live in a place," which produced the extended form "(t)koimo," which meant "settlement, village, home." This gave Old Germanic "haimaz," or perhaps "(k)haimaz," with the "k" not being prominent, at least in theory, and with the broad meaning of "dwelling, village, settled place." This gave Anglo-Saxon/Old English "ham," not pronounced like the pork product, but with a long "a" sound. Later the spelling/pronunciation had changed to "hom," before the modern spelling. Over time, too, the meaning narrowed to "residence, place were one or a family resides," although the earlier broader meaning of "village, settled place" lives on from those times in place names like "Birmingham" and "Buckingham," which denoted a village. An Old English verb form, "hamian," also developed from the noun, with the meaning "to set up or build a home," then later with the modern spelling, but meaning "to go home," and it still exists, as it was used in refence to pigeons, and with the form "homing pigeon." The verb is now more associated with "signals that guide a missile to its target; that is, "home." German has "Heim" (as do some, but not all, Low German dialects), Dutch has "heem," "West Frisian "hiem," Norwegian has "hjem" and "heim," Swedish "hem," Danish "hjem," and Icelandic "heimur."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Twenty-One

"Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/B
"Foreign Policy & The German Question" (Part Four/1)
"Hitler Goes Home; Austria Joins Germany" (Part 1)

An overview:
Austria now re-enters the picture, although it had been on the periphery since the end of World War One. Talk about a people with an identity crisis! As I've shown in this series, Austria had been THE leading German state among a multitude of German entities, and indeed, the Habsburg family of Austria provided the German emperors (Kaiser) of the old German Empire for centuries. Austria's defeat by rival German state, Prussia, in 1866, brought about the exclusion of Austria from German affairs, and left Austria out of the new German nation formed by Bismarck. While ties remained close between the two nations (Austria then shared its former exclusive rule of its multi-ethnic territories with Hungary, as Austria-Hungary), the fact was "they were two separate nations." After suffering defeat in World War One, Austria-Hungary was broken up into various new nations, leaving the German part simply as its own sovereign nation, but seen by many as a nation without purpose. Many Austrians then sought to join Germany, and numerous German leaders wanted the same, but the victorious Allies forbid such unification, unless approved by the League of Nations, which, at that time, was highly unlikely, as France, in particular, opposed it. Attempts by democratic forces to unite the two German entities failed, leaving the situation unresolved when Adolf Hitler, an Austrian by birth, and certainly NOT democratic, became leader of Germany.

The Austrian Nazi Party agitated for "Anschluss," that is, "union with Germany," especially with the onset of the Great Depression, as Austria was staggered by the economic collapse, and unemployment soared. The Nazis assassinated the chancellor, Engelbert Dollfuss in 1934, but the attempted takeover of the government failed, and Mussolini, at that time no close friend of Hitler, sent Italian military forces to the border to intervene if Hitler sent troops into Austria. Kurt Schuschnigg became the new Austrian chancellor and events cooled down for a time, but that would change.*

* Also rendered as "von" Schnuschnigg, but this nobility indicator was done away with in Austria after World War One and even the once powerful "von" Habsburg name became just Habsburg.

WORD HISTORY:
Autobahn-This compound was borrowed into English from German during the 1930s, but it consists of two words with English forms. First, "auto" is simply an abbreviated form of "automobile," which was borrowed into both English and German from French. "Auto" goes back to Greek "autos," with the meaning "self," so "automobile" means "self mobile;" that is, animals were not used to make it go. Where Greek got "autos" is not known. German, too, borrowed "Auto" from French, and for those studying German, the noun is neuter; thus, "das Auto" (all German nouns are capitalized). German "Bahn" and English "bane" are related, although the meanings have diverged. They go back to Indo European "gwhen," which meant "to hit, to beat, to wound, to kill (presumably by beating/hitting)." This then gave the Old Germanic spinoff "bano(n)" (remember, it is assumed that sounds in ancient times were not very specific, and indeed, we all don't pronounce things the same today, although in most cases there are some modern standards), with the same basic meanings. This gave Anglo-Saxon (Old English) "bana," with the meaning "killer," and also "benn," meaning "wound that kills." The idea of "killing" gave modern English the meaning "something that causes serious harm or death;" thus "wolfbane" is a "poisonous plant." The same Old Germanic word above gave Old High German "bano," which also meant "killer," but also had a slight variation in meaning for non-human items as, "knock down, strike, cause destruction by striking." This secondary meaning gave Old High German the notion of "path cleared by knocking things down by striking." Later in German the word was spelled "bane" (short "a"), with the meaning "pathway, road," and this then became "ban" (still short "a"), and then modern "Bahn," with the meaning "road, pathway, railroad tracks." The German national rail system is called "Die Bahn" (it is feminine; thus, "die," pronounced "dee"). So, "Autobahn" is literally an "autopath;" that is, a "highway/motorway." This meaning was only present in German, Low German and Dutch, but Danish and Swedish borrowed forms of the word from Low German. This "seems" to indicate that the "road, pathway" meaning developed AFTER the Anglo-Saxons left continental northern Europe for Britain, where they founded England; thus, the secondary meaning was left out of English.