It's About Coalitions Not Purity, Part Seventeen

"Reagan's Last Years In Office"

Libya, a North African nation, was once part of the vast Ottoman (Turkish) Empire, and then a colony of Italy until after Mussolini's defeat in World War Two. Shortly thereafter it became a kingdom. In the late 1960s, Muammar Gaddafi,* the leader of a group of army officers, overthrew the government when the king was out of the country. Gaddafi established a dictatorship, with socialism as the economic base of the oil-rich country. Gaddafi militarized Libya and supported various anti-government, anti-Western groups in other countries, particularly, but not exclusively, in his own part of the world. In the spring of 1985, Gaddafi's agents bombed a nightclub in (then) West Berlin, killing and injuring a couple of hundred people, including a number of Americans. Intelligence from a number of sources, not just American, clearly linked the terrorist attack to Gaddafi. Reagan ordered air attacks against Libya not long thereafter. The American planes were given permission by Britain to operate from bases there, which then moved the British up on Gaddafi's hit (or hate) list, too. Gaddafi began to deal with the Soviet Union more and more. In December 1988, a Pan Am flight from London to New York exploded over Lockerbie, Scotland, killing all aboard the plane and causing further deaths on the ground. Evidence pieced together led investigators to believe the bombing was orchestrated by Gaddafi. The extensive investigation was ongoing when Reagan left office in January 1989. 

 During the mid 1980s, members of both political parties tried to work out a law to deal with the nation's problem with illegal immigration. The law basically made it illegal for employers to "knowingly" hire people who were in the country without documentation. This was an attempt to restrict employment, primarily, but not exclusively, by agricultural firms, in hiring undocumented workers, which the theory went, then only encouraged more illegal immigration. These workers typically made far less than the average American worker and provided a cheap labor source. The idea was, curtail hiring of illegals, and this would then discourage other potential illegal immigrants from trying to enter the country. Many American business people, led by the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, opposed the bill, not just because of the cheap labor sources it provided to some businesses, but because the law would involve them in checking worker documentation. Latino-American groups opposed the bill because they feared hiring discrimination against LEGAL immigrants, or even Latino-American citizens, simply because of their appearances, and the desire by employers to avoid any possibility of hiring illegal immigrants. In an effort to please both business people and the Latino-American community, the law provided for undocumented workers to become legal under certain circumstances.** With many of the grievances addressed for both business and Latino-Americans, a successful coalition had been formed to advance the legislation, and the bill passed and was signed into law by President Reagan.

By 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev took power in the Soviet Union. Gorbachev sought to modernize and to liberalize Soviet society by granting a degree of freedom of speech and freedom of the press, plus by releasing a number of political prisoners from Soviet custody. Gorbachev himself criticized corruption in the Soviet system. He also desired a lowering of tensions in the Cold War and met with President Reagan, with whom he signed an agreement about limiting nuclear weapons.***

Next.... "Assessment of Reagan"

* Until more recent times in English, it was more typically spelled "Qaddafi," the "q" being pronounced like a "k."

** The law granted legal status (amnesty) to certain "seasonal workers" (almost by definition, agricultural workers) who had worked at least 90 days in the U.S. by May 1986 and to illegal immigrants who had continuously lived in the U.S. prior to 1982. These provisions granted amnesty to about three million previously illegal immigrants.

*** Earlier in his administration, Reagan had proposed an elaborate space defense system against attack, dubbed "Star Wars" in the media. The plan created much debate as to its possibilities, but its major stumbling block was the estimated cost at a time when Reagan had already proposed large defense budget increases and the country was running huge budget deficits. A further problem was the time needed to develop the technology for such a system, which involved a system of space deployed lasers to destroy incoming enemy missiles (usually in those times thought of as "Soviet"). 

WORD HISTORY:
Broth-This word traces back to Indo European "bhreuwhe," which had the notion of "to boil;" thus also, "to bubble, to seethe, to cook." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "breuwanan," which meant "to brew" (indeed, the ancestor of "brew"), which then also produced a noun "breuthan," meaning "broth;" that is, "liquid produced after cooking/boiling something in it." This then gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "broth." Since this word is derived from the same source as "brew," its other Germanic relatives have retained the forms generally closer to that, like German "Brühe" (broth), although German also has the derived verb "brodeln," which means "to boil," along with the figurative "seethe with anger." Low German Saxon has "Bröh" (broth). Latin borrowed a form of the word from Germanic, which then gave Italian, for instance, "brodo," their word for "broth."

Allied Commanders of World War Two/Wavell & Alexander

"Archibald Wavell"
Wavell was born in southeastern England (Essex*) and attended Sandhurst Royal Military Academy in southern England. Wavell fought in the 2nd Boer War (1899-1902) in southern Africa,** and he then served in India before involvement in World War I, where he was wounded and lost an eye. Postwar he was sent to Palestine and put in charge of British Middle East Forces against the Italian invasion of Egypt in 1940. A highly successful British counteroffensive against Mussolini's army destroyed much of the Italian force in Egypt and eastern Libya, but Wavell had to shift some Commonwealth forces and supplies to help Greece against an Italian invasion, launched by Mussolini in the fall of 1940. Hitler, alarmed by the Italian collapse in North Africa, sent General Erwin Rommel with German tanks and troops to stave off the loss of North Africa. Rommel, not content to just hold the line, launched his own offensive against the tired and depleted Commonwealth forces, driving them back in a stunning reversal. Not only did Wavell have to combat German and Italian forces in North Africa, but he was also forced to deal with military events in the Middle East, far to the rear of his front line command. He was forced to put down an attempted pro-Axis takeover of Iraq and then to fight Vichy French forces in Syria and Lebanon. All the distractions only helped Rommel. Churchill chose to relieve Wavell of his Middle East post in mid 1941 and the general was then sent to India. India was not a safe haven, as it wasn't long before the Japanese launched major operations throughout southern areas of Asia and the Pacific, including the attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor. British and Commonwealth forces were woefully inadequate to defend the area, and Japanese forces advanced through southeast Asia and captured the fortress of Singapore. Wavell's forces withdrew to India, but launched a counteroffensive, and although it achieved initial success, it eventually had to be broken off. By mid 1943, Churchill replaced Wavell as commander, but kept him on as Viceroy of India. This was an important position, as India, which included modern Pakistan and Bangladesh in those times, was moving towards independence from Britain. When the war ended, religious violence between Hindus and Muslims had parts of India in flames, and Wavell was replaced by Lord Mountbatten. Wavell returned to England where he died in May 1950.

"Harold Alexander"
Alexander was born into a noble family in London and he attended Sandhurst Royal Military Academy in southern England. Alexander was twice wounded in World War I, and he was given high marks by his superiors. The future field marshal served as a divisional commander in France in 1940 and evacuated with his unit from Dunkirk after the German breakthrough. He was sent to India to help organize defensive measures against the Japanese. Alexander was appointed British Commander-in-Chief Middle East in August 1942, making him newly appointed British 8th Army commander Bernhard Montgomery's superior. In 1943 Alexander became Army Group Commander for North Africa, reporting to General Eisenhower; and then with the same basic set-up for operations in Sicily and Italy. Made Commander-in-Chief Mediterranean and promoted to field marshal in 1944. More composed and far less dramatic then either Montgomery or General Patton, both of whom served under his commands, Alexander was well liked by those who served with him, although Montgomery had a far less favorable opinion of him. After the war he became Governor-General of Canada for the King, and then he became Minister of Defence*** in Churchill's government in the 1950s. Field Marshal Alexander died 1969.

* The County of Essex derives from Old English "East Seaxe" (also written as one word), which means, "East Saxons." The Saxons were one of the major Germanic tribes, from what is now modern northern Germany, who settled in Briton and helped found England. Their Germanic dialect was an essential part of the making of the English language.

** The Boer Wars were fought between the British and Dutch settlers in southern Africa. The Dutch dialects spoken in southern Africa dating back a couple of hundred years developed into what is now classified as a separate language, "Afrikaans." It is naturally very similar to Dutch, and it has many similarities to its other Germanic relatives, especially Frisian, German and English.



*** The American English spelling is "defense."
WORD HISTORY:
Many-This common word goes back to Indo European "monogho," with the notion of "much, many, often." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "managaz," which in turn gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "manig/monig," depending upon dialect. The ending "ig" sound eventually modified to "y." The pronunciation of the base also changed (during the 1200s) as if spelled "meny," although in the related compound "manifold," the original pronunciation remains intact. Common in the other Germanic languages, although I could not find a modern form in Icelandic: German has "manch" and "mannig" (the latter used in compounds, it means "many/multi"); Low German has "männig" and "mannig;" West Frisian has "mannich;" Dutch has "menig;" Norwegian has "mang(e);" Swedish has "mången" and "många;" Danish has "mange."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Forty-Two

"Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Two/D
"He Was Called The Desert Fox"

If ever there has been a "popular" part of modern war, the war in North Africa would undoubtedly be a leading candidate for the title. While the men killed on both sides were just as dead as those killed on the continent of Europe, or somewhere on the vast seas, the outright hatred by the two sides was lacking in this war in the desert. Any atrocities were limited to acts carried out by individuals, rather than by policy from higher commands. The war in North Africa has been romanticized from the time it was taking place until the present, with books, articles, movies and television shows. I "guess" what all of this means is, if there have to be wars, then let them be like the war in North Africa, where even enemies sort of "had respect" for one another.

When Italy declared war on June 10, 1940, the Italians found their African colonies bordered in East Africa and in North Africa by enemy forces or colonies.* In East Africa, Italy controlled the colonies of Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Italian Somaliland, and in August of 1940, the Italians ousted the British from their small colony of "British Somaliland." It wasn't long, however, before the British and British Commonwealth military forces launched operations against the Italians in East Africa. Far removed from Italy, the Italians and their colonial forces could not prevent an eventual defeat by late 1941.

In North Africa, Italy controlled the colony of Libya. To the west lay the French colonies of Tunisia and Algeria; to the east lay Egypt, a kingdom, but with substantial British influence, including British and Commonwealth troops stationed there to protect the Suez Canal and the major British naval base at Alexandria.**

Mussolini sought to restore the long defunct Roman Empire, and in September of 1940, his forces advanced into Egypt with the Suez Canal as the grand prize. The terrain in both Libya and Egypt was mainly desert or extremely rough, with hot and dry conditions. Major military operations were thus usually carried out only from the Mediterranean coast to about 40-60 miles inland. The Italians advanced against light British opposition, and then they paused and set up defensive camps. The British took the opportunity to launch an offensive in December 1940, even though they were outnumbered by the Italians. Instead of having a unified defensive position, the Italians had formed defensive camps that were separated from one another, and one camp was thus unable to support any other camp or camps that came under attack. The British forces won a decisive victory, not only destroying the Italian forces, but pursuing the remnants of Mussolini's army back into Libya, threatening to conquer all of Libya. Events on the continent (see next article) and sheer exhaustion hampered the British advance, and they stopped the offensive to rest and resupply their forces. They had captured some 130,000 Italian troops! This achieved by a British force of only 36,000.

Alarms sounded in Germany about Mussolini's failed exploit. Hitler, not wanting to get bogged down in North Africa, nor to embarrass his ally Mussolini, decided to send a relatively small German mobile force under the command of General Erwin Rommel, a former commander of Hitler's headquarters' protection unit, to hopefully stabilize the situation. The German units came to be called the "German Africa Corps" ("Deutsches Afrikakorps"). Not long after his arrival, and before all of his units were even delivered to North Africa (through the Libyan port of Tripoli), Rommel launched an attack against the British forces in Libya, chasing them back to the Egyptian border, and surrounding British and Commonwealth forces in the Libyan port city of Tobruk. The British held out in Tobruk, and eventually their forces along the Egyptian border launched an attack against Rommel's German and Italian units (Mussolini had sent reinforcements).*** Rommel retreated all the way back to his original starting point, but then turned on the British and launched a new offensive, this time capturing Tobruk and driving deep into Egypt.**** It looked as if the Germans and Italians would capture both Alexandria and the Suez Canal, and Mussolini even went to North Africa to be present for the victory celebration, but the British weren't defeated yet. Rommel, short of supplies and faced with increasing British resistance, halted near a tiny railway station called El Alamein in the late summer of 1942. His mastery of the battlefield and his tendency to go right to the front line to assess and direct situations helped earned Rommel the nickname, "The Desert Fox" (Der "Wüstenfuchs," see Word History below).

* The armistice signed by France on June 22, 1940, ended hostilities, and part of the agreement carved out a central core of France to be administered by the French, referred to as "Vichy France," as the government operated out of the city of Vichy, not Paris, which remained under German occupation. The French also retained their colonies in Africa and the Middle East. The French military was restricted in size, but they continued to have troops stationed in their colonies. These forces, like two other belligerents, Britain and Italy, were a combination of "national" troops and colonial troops; the colonial units usually commanded by national officers. "National" means French, British, or Italian, respectively.

** This control of the Suez Canal and the eastern Mediterranean Sea by the British prohibited Italy from supplying her military forces in East Africa, mentioned in the above segment. The only way for Italy to send substantial military aid to East Africa by ship was to try to get ships through the narrow Strait of Gibraltar (Gibraltar was under British control), then go clear around Africa, and given British naval superiority this gave them two chances; slim and none. They were able to send some transport planes with aid for their forces in East Africa, but the limited number of such planes available to the Italians made this impractical for sustaining their army in East Africa.

*** It needs to be noted that Rommel was technically subordinate to the Italian High Command in Rome, something he resented, as politics intruded onto the battlefield. On the other hand, the Italians were not always taken with Rommel's insubordination to their orders, and the relationship between the two sides was never really cordial, to say the least, although Rommel did seemingly like and respect some of the Italian field commanders subordinate to him in North Africa.

**** Hitler promoted Rommel to Field Marshal for the capture of Tobruk, and Rommel's exploits in North Africa captured the imagination of the German public. Rommel's friendship with Hitler's propagandist Josef Goebbels helped too, as Goebbels gave Rommel lots of stories in the press and in newsreels. It wasn't only in Germany that Rommel was known, however, as the British and the rest of the world took note of his dashing persona, and with the British, a strange sort of admiration developed for Rommel, albeit a fearful one. One British commander was so alarmed by Rommel's reputation among British troops, that he ordered his commanders to quash Rommel's "bogeyman" image among their men.

WORD HISTORY:
Fox (Vixen)-This noun goes back to Indo European "puk," which meant "tail," and the extended form, "pukso," meaning "with a tail, tailed." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "fuhsaz," then West Germanic "fukhs;" English is a West Germanic language. This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "fox," and it has remained such for all of these centuries. The North Germanic languages do not use the word, although their ancestor, Old Norse, had a form of the word, "foa," which has died out, but it is common in the other West Germanic languages: German has "Fuchs" (be careful how you pronounce that! The 'u' is pronounced pretty much like the 'oo' sound of English 'food'); Low German has "Voss," Dutch has "vos," and West Frisian has "foks." For those studying German, "Fuchs" is masculine, thus "der Fuchs," although a female fox is feminine, and is "die Füchsin," similar in pronunciation, but with a beginning "f" sound, to its close relative, the English word for female fox, "vixen."