The German Question, Part One Hundred Fifty-Nine

"Final Thoughts & Bibliography"

NOTES: 1) In the previous article, I did not mention Albert Einstein, who was a very prominent German-Jewish scientist and thinker. Einstein was out of the country when Hitler took power at the end of January 1933, and he never returned. He came to the United States and became an American citizen.

2) No one really knows for sure when Hitler believed the war to be lost, and there have been several "theories" offered up by historians, but certainly the duel defeats at El Alamein and Stalingrad made many Germans, including military personnel, begin to think the war could not be won, and I tend to think the same of Hitler. In his speech to the Reichstag on September 1, 1939, the day Germany invaded Poland, Hitler made it clear that if the war was lost, he would still never surrender, and that he would not survive the war's end. So even when he felt the war was lost, the war went on, with the sacrifice of millions of lives. His whole aim seemed to simply be, rather than victory, to keep the war going in order to postpone his inevitable death. Even in the final days in Berlin, as children helped in the street by street fight against Soviet troops, the point was still to keep the war going to save his worthless ass. Absolute insanity ("Wahnsinn").

3) Back in the 1990s, columnist George Will wrote about the possibility of "Anschluss;" that is, unification of Austria with Germany. That certainly does not seem possible at this point in time, and as time has passed, Austrians have distanced themselves (not without reason) from a child of Austria...Hitler.

Why German history? We can learn from history, even from the history of other peoples and we should never be afraid to learn something from someone else. Learning from others doesn't make you weak, it makes you stronger. Certainly one of the things we should see in German history is, you can't have a true country with so many elements pulling in different directions. The Old German Empire is a case in point, with individual states having so much power, they eventually became like separate countries, albeit under the "vague" umbrella of the German Empire, which really had no central government. In fact, as I've shown in these articles, several regions indeed became truly separate countries outside of Germany:  Austria, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein and Switzerland. In America in the last few years, we've heard comments from certain state leaders about seceding from the Union, something many Americans probably thought was settled by our Civil War of about 150 years ago. While the debate over how much power the national government should have versus the individual state governments is a valid one, the "hate the government movement" and the appeal to personal gain over what's in the best interest of the nation and its citizens is deeply disturbing. Of course, when disaster strikes, the same preachers of "hate the government" want help from "Uncle Sam." If all of this gets carried further, will we need to ask "the American question;" that is, "who is an American?"

As to "who is a German," the question seems to be answered for now, and perhaps forever. There are a couple of answers. There are "national Germans;" that is, Germans who are citizens of Germany. There are also  "Germans" who are German in culture/custom and language, but who are not "national Germans," and who do not want to be "national Germans." During the Nazi era, Hitler stirred emotions among many German communities throughout Europe, indeed, throughout the world, and many wanted to become "national Germans," or "Reichsdeutsche," as the term was back then. By the end of the war, many of these Germans, especially in eastern Europe, got their wish, but the hard way; they had to flee for their very lives from the other countries where they had been living. When all was said and done, Germans were much more "united" within the then borders of Germany, more so "West Germany," than "East Germany," and Germans remaining in eastern European countries are today far less in numbers and percentage of the population of their respective countries than before World War Two.

Many Germans realize the tremendous flaws of their past and laws have been in place banning the display of Nazi paraphernalia, and there have been restrictions on the use of German military units outside of Germany. Some may say this limits democracy, and I suppose it does, but democracy can't be pure either, and these restrictions didn't end German democracy, I would say they strengthened it. Do you allow "total" freedom to go to a point that it destroys a nation or the world? We are still in the midst of a deregulation and greed driven recession (when this article was first written). Did we learn any lessons?

Much of the information in these articles has been very basic, and I did it from memory, but I did need a chronology as well as some checking on certain facts and figures, especially dates.

Bukey, Evan Burr, "Hitler's Austria," University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, N.C., 2000

Domarus, Max, "Hitler-Reden und Proklamationen" (Three volumes: 1932-1934; 1935-1938; 1939-1945), Süddeutscher Verlag, München, 1965

Gurney, Gene, "Kingdoms of Europe," Crown Publishers, Inc. New York, 1982

Herz, John H., "The Government of Germany," Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc. New York, 1967 Edition

Lumans, Valdis O., "Himmler's Auxiliaries," University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, N.C., 1993

Mosley, Leonard, "On Borrowed Time," Random House, New York, 1969

A.J.P. Taylor, "The Origins of the Second World War," Atheneum, New York, 1985 (Second Printing), copyright 1961

Wikipedia-This is a great source for quick basic info checks online.

I'll end this series with the words to a German folksong, "Die Gedanken Sind Frei" ("Thoughts Are Free"), written back in the early 1800s, but by whom, no one seems to know. The Germans have not really been free until relatively recently, but even back then, they thought about freedom. There are various versions, but this is what I know, so here it is:

Die Gedanken sind frei, wer kann sie erraten? Sie fliegen vorbei, wie nächtliche Schatten. Kein Mensch kann sie wissen, kein Jäger erschiessen, mit Pulver und Blei; die Gedanken sind frei. (Thoughts are free, who can guess them? They fly by as night-like shadows. No person can know them, no hunter can shoot them, with powder and lead; thoughts are free.)

Ich denke was ich will und was mich beglückt, doch alles in der Still', und wie es sich schicket. Mein Wunsch und Begehren kann niemand verwehren, es bleibet dabei: Die Gedanken sind frei! (I think what I want and what makes me happy, certainly in the stillness and as it suits me. My wish and desire can be denied by no one, it therefore remains: thoughts are free.)

Und sperrt man mich ein, im finsteren Kerker, das alles sind rein vergebliche Werke. Denn meine Gedanken zerreissen die Schranken und Mauern entzwei, die Gedanken sind frei! (And if they lock me away in the dark prison, that is all work done purely in vain. Because my thoughts tear away the barriers and walls, thoughts are free.)

WORD HISTORY:
Free-This common word traces back to Indo European "pri," which meant "to love," and the derived "prijos," which meant "beloved, dear." The assumption is, a part of our ancient ancestors used the term for family members who were not slaves or servants; thus they were "free" people, and that is how the term shifted in meaning. By the time of its Old Germanic offspring, "frijaz," it meant "not beholden to, not in bondage to" (the "p" became "f" in Old Germanic). This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "freo," with similar meaning. Gradually the meaning expanded to "under no obligation," to "under no obligation to pay for, unrestrained." The spelling became "fre," before the modern version. The verb form, as in "to free someone, to set free," developed in Old English as "freon," then became "freen," before the modern form. "Free" is very common in the other Germanic languages: German has "frei" (initially in Old High German "fri"), Low German Saxon has "free," Dutch has "vrij," West Frisian has "frij," Norwegian, Swedish & Danish have "fri," and Icelandic has "frjáls." There are also verb forms, like German "befreien," meaning "to set free."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Fifty-Eight

"German Contributions to the World" ("German" in the broad sense, not all were from Germany, but some were born in Austria-Hungary or Switzerland.)

Everyone should already know about German contributions to music, especially "classical music," so I'll just mention some names to refresh memories:* Johann Sebastian Bach, Johannes Brahms, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Robert Schumann, Felix Mendelssohn (Bartholdy), Richard Strauss, Richard Wagner, Johann Strauss, Franz Schubert, (Franz) Joseph Haydn. Further, Wilhelm Furtwängler was a composer, but he was better known as a long time symphony conductor, and I'm sure you can still buy music conducted by him (he died in the 1950s).** Likewise for Otto Klemperer, another renowned conductor.*** Besides classical music, people like Marlene Dietrich, a singer and actress, and 1980s pop music star "Nena" ("99 Balloons") are well known. For "rock" fans, "The Scorpions" are from Germany.

In art, Paul Klee and Albrecht Dürer come to mind, and Klee was born in the German part of Switzerland. In Philosophy Immanuel Kant, Georg Friedrich Hegel, and Friedrich Nietzsche are all well known. Writers Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Günter Grass, Hermann Hesse, Thomas Mann, Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm ("The Brothers Grimm"),**** Heinrich Heine, Erich Maria Remarque (best known for "All Quiet On The Western Front"), Friedrich Schiller.

In film (and television), both acting or directing, I already mentioned Marlene Dietrich, and there was Otto Preminger, Fritz Lang, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Werner Klemperer & (Johann) "John" Banner (both of "Hogan's Heroes"), Romy Schneider, Billy Wilder, Maximilian Schell, Bertholt Brecht (playwright). Leni Riefenstahl is recognized as a ground-breaking filmmaker, but she is controversial, due to her close association with Hitler.

In science, Wernher von Braun, who came to America after World War Two, is noted for rocket development.***** German engineering produced the great "Panther" tank, which actually took some design features from the Soviet T-34 tank. And most of you have undoubtedly heard of the famous "Tiger" tank. Its reputation was so "ferocious," it had an impact on the battlefield even when it was not present, as Allied soldiers tended to call any German tank a "Tiger."

* Remember, Austria was THE leading German state for centuries, so just as the now two separate countries share a common history until more recent times, some composers can also been seen as "shared," or "German" sense. Further, this list of names is not meant to name EVERY German composer or musician, artist, philosopher, etc, by any stretch of the imagination.

** Furtwängler is controversial, however, not for his music or conducting, but rather for his association with the Nazis, although he successfully later fled to Switzerland during the war.

*** He is the father of actor Werner Klemperer, mentioned above, who was famous as television's "Colonel Klink" in the comedy "Hogan's Heroes." Conductor Otto Klemperer was Jewish, who converted to Catholicism and returned to Judaism late in his life. He was married to a singer who was Lutheran; thus, their son Werner was part Jewish. The family left Germany not long after Hitler came to power and they soon came to the United States. John (real name, "Johann") Banner, who played "Sergeant Schultz" in the same comedy series, was born in Vienna. Banner, who was Jewish, fled to the United States when Hitler annexed Austria.

**** The Grimms also did much work in linguistics and etymology ("history of words," hmm).

***** The Germans developed a number of things for war, unfortunately often for the Nazis, but like it or not, war is a part of mankind, and weapons are therefore important. They developed the "Buzz Bombs," so called in England because of the buzzing sound their engine made, which were propelled aircraft with bombs in a warhead. Also known as the "V-1" rocket (V=Vergeltungswaffe; that is, "retaliation weapon"), it was followed by the far more elaborate missile the V-2, the actual forerunner to today's spacecraft and yes, today's intercontinental ballistic missiles. Both the Western Allies and the Soviets wanted to get their hands on the German scientists who helped develop these weapons, and fortunately, many were captured by the West. These Germans were so noted, in the TV sitcom "Get Smart," of the 1960s, in one episode at a rocket launch, all of the instructions are announced in both English and German, prompting someone to ask "Why in German too?" The answer comes back something to the effect that many "American" scientists understand German better than English.

WORD HISTORY:
Wax-This is the noun,^ meaning "material used for candles and substance made by bees." There is uncertainty about the ancient origins of this word, and I'm not really sold on any particular theory. It "could" be a Germanic invention, based upon the old verb form which meant "grow," with the idea of "the substance that 'grows' the honeycomb." Some non-Germanic eastern European languages have obvious forms of this word, but they are likely borrowings from Germanic (Lithuanian has "vaškas" and Polish has "wosk," for example). Anyway, Old Germanic had "wahksan," and this then gave Anglo-Saxon (Old English) "weax," which then became "wax." Common in the other Germanic languages: German has "Wachs," Low German Saxon has "Wass," Dutch has "was," West Frisian has "waaks," Norwegian and Danish have "voks," Swedish has "vax," and Icelandic has "vaks."

^ See Part 156 of this series for the old verb form "wax."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Fifty-Seven

"Hitler & The German Question" Part Three

In the Eupen-Malmedy region, which had been annexed to Belgium from Germany after World War One, and then annexed back to Germany during World War Two, the area was returned to Belgium after Hitler's defeat, but over time, the German population was given equal political rights, including for the maintenance of their language.

The South Tirol (or Tyrol) was a hot button issue for decades. This region of the Alps was heavily German,* but with an Italian minority, which actually had majority status in certain southern areas of the region. It was given to Italy after World War One as sort of a payoff for Italy's having chosen the Allied side. It had been a part of the Austrian part of "Austria-Hungary," and the rest of Tirol, including famous Innsbruck, remained part of Austria after World War One. The Italians tried to "Italianize" the Germans in the South Tirol, and this brought about extreme dissatisfaction among the German population. Hitler and Mussolini came to an agreement about the time of Germany's invasion of Poland to let Germans of the South Tirol choose to remain in the region, but to become "Italians," with all of the resultant restrictions on German language and German culture that carried with it, or to emigrate to Germany (which then included Austria). More than 150,000 chose to "resettle" outside of Italy, but the war interfered with much of this resettlement, and only about half that number actually left Italy. The South Tirol remained a part of Italy after World War Two ended,** but with much German unrest, including serious incidents (people killed), for several decades. Finally the Italian government agreed to grant a degree of "autonomy" to the German region, and several years later another more expanded agreement gave even greater autonomy to the German population. The Germans of the South Tirol have maintained their German language (German is now recognized by the Italian government as an "official" language in the region) and German culture, but they have remained a part of Italy as an "autonomous region," and some of the Italian majority areas were detached from this political entity to avoid further conflict.

After the war, Luxembourg went back to being Luxembourg, a separate country. In Alsace-Lorraine,*** Hitler never formally announced the annexation of the regions to Germany after defeating France in 1940, but the areas were just taken over again, and standard German was reintroduced as the language taught in schools there. The regions reverted to France at the end of the war, and French was again made the official language, and standard German and the German dialects of these two regions have been in serious decline ever since.

As to Germany herself, Austria became independent, although it was divided into occupation zones, with the country gaining full independence in the mid 1950s. Germany was divided into four occupation zones, with the Soviet zone in eastern Germany eventually becoming a communist state, commonly known as "East Germany," but officially the "German Democratic Republic." The western zones were occupied by the British, Americans, and French, and became commonly known as "West Germany," but officially as the "Federal Republic of Germany." Germany became the center of possible major Cold War confrontation between the Soviet Union and its satellite nations in eastern Europe on one side and western Europe and the United States on the other. As communism lost its grip over eastern Europe in the late 1980s/early 1990s, Germany was reunited as a single nation, and the occupation officially ended. Whether occupation forces would have remained in Germany for such a long time if there hadn't been a "Cold War" is difficult to say, but I doubt it, as the costs would have probably been too great for the occupying nations, although I think it benefited the stability of the western areas, as unlike after World War One, when the Weimar Republic floundered around trying to establish democracy, the presence of foreign powers for so long after World War Two helped democracy take firm root during that time, and presently, Germany is a model democracy, as is Austria.

Germans born after the war are not responsible for what their parents or grandparents did during the Nazi regime, and increasingly, the more recent generations have little concept of those times, as the Nazi-era generation is fading from the scene. Quite a few of the Nazi-era Germans I've known over the years are quite ashamed of those times, but then again, I've known a few who were unrepentant. For a few decades after the war ended, there was a fear by many non-Germans that if Germany did reunite, Germans would seek to regain territories lost to other nations after World War Two, especially some areas lost to Poland, which had in fact been a sore spot for many Germans since the end of the war. Presently that has not happened, nor does it appear likely to happen any time soon, if ever. Germans have struggled to deal with their history during Hitler's rule, especially the murderous nature of his regime and the complicity of so many, but time is doing much to change attitudes. People like Sophie Scholl and Claus von Stauffenberg**** have become martyrs and heroes to younger generations of Germans for their willingness to oppose Hitler, and this seems to say, "the nightmare is over."

* Of course, it all depends upon where you draw the boundaries.

** While Mussolini was put back into power by the Germans in northern Italy, that government was obviously never recognized by the Allies; thus, Italy's switch to the Allied side in September 1943 helped Italy keep the South Tirol.

*** As noted in previous articles in this series, the struggle over these regions has gone on for centuries, but technically, this struggle has not been over both provinces in their entirety, but rather most of Alsace and about a quarter to a third of Lorraine, the Germans conceding the other areas as being French.

**** See Part 151 about the German Resistance.

WORD HISTORY:
Will-The noun form, meaning "determination (as in 'will power'), intended purpose or desire," goes back to Indo European "wel," with the meaning "wish, desire." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "wiljon," with the same basic meaning. This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "willa," with the meaning "self will or determination, desire." This then later became "wille" before the modern spelling. In the 1300s, the idea of "wish, determination" began to be applied to "a legal document expressing a deceased person's 'desires' for the division of his/her belongings," a meaning that also continues today. German has "Wille," Low German Saxon has "Will," Dutch has "wil," West Frisian "wolle," Swedish has "vilja," Norwegian and Danish have "vilje," all with the meaning of "desire, intention, will power," but not the legalistic "will," which seems to be confined to English.

The verb "will" seems to have been derived from the noun form of Old Germanic as "wiljan(an)," with the same basic meaning "desire, wish, intention to do." This gave Old English "willan" (also apparently "wyllan" in some dialects), with the same basic meaning. The "intention to do" meaning came to be used in future usage; thus, "I will go to the store." Later the word was spelled "willen" and "wollen," before the modern spelling. Extensively used in the other Germanic languages: German has "wollen" (just to show the similarity to English, conjugated as ich will=I will; du willst=you will; er,sie,es will=he, she, it will), Low German and Dutch have "willen," West Frisian "wolle," Danish and some Norwegian have "ville," Icelandic, some Norwegian and Swedish have "vilja."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Fifty-Six

"Hitler & The German Question" Part Two

Hitler's increasingly violent racism certainly excluded German Jews as being "Germans," first with legal measures and later by mass murder.

As in Poland, Germans were forcibly expelled from Czechoslovakia immediately after the end of the war, and those expulsions continued for more than a year, but some Germans remained, in some cases being "retained;" that is, not permitted to leave by the Czech government, because of special work skills. The numbers were relatively small compared to the prewar German population. There were deaths among the German population during the expulsions, and the number of casualties is very much in dispute, but 15,000 to 20,000 is a likely minimum.

The Soviet military began arresting Germans in Hungary, even before the war was over. Thousands were sent to the Soviet Union, never to return. After the war, the communist government of Hungary expelled tens of thousands of Germans to occupied Germany and Austria, but even then some Germans remained as part of the national Hungarian population. In the case of Rumania too, thousands of Germans had fled the advancing Red Army, but at least a quarter of a million Germans remained, although as communism "waned" (there's that word, see previous "Word History") in the late 1980s, many left for Germany. Similar happened in the Soviet Union, although untold thousands of ethnic Germans died in Soviet prisons or labor camps, or when they were forcibly moved from their home areas to Siberia or to other remote regions.

As the war wound down in Yugoslavia, many Germans fled, but many were killed by communist resistance or military units, or sent to Soviet labor camps. Quite a number of the Germans from northern Yugoslavia eventually emigrated to the United States in the 1950s, with many coming to Cleveland, where their presence, more so now their descendants, is still evident.

Austria was reestablished as an independent nation, although a pro-German unification party remained on election ballots, with an ever decreasing share of the vote as the years ticked by. I must admit, I regret the separation of Austria from Germany, and I often wonder if things would have been different, if Austria had become part of Germany after World War One, as was likely before the Versailles Treaty forbade it. Would the Germans still have gone berserk under Hitler or some other right wing leader? Maybe, as let's not forget where the chief nutcase came from... Austria!

It is my "intention" to finish this series in three more articles: the next one about the western boundaries, one about the positive German contributions to the world (especially after all of this nasty period of Hitler and the Nazis), and one with a basic bibliography. I'm not guaranteeing it will be just three articles, but let's see if I can do it.

WORD HISTORY:
Wax-This is the now archaic verb, not the substance made by bees or used for candles, and it is most commonly used in modern times in the expression "wax and wane" (see previous article for "wane"), and it is related to English "eke," as in "eke out a living." It goes back to Indo European "wegs, weks," and the related Indo European "aug," which had the meaning "to increase." This gave Old Germanic "wahksijan," with the general sense of "to increase, to grow." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "weaxan," with the same "increase, grow" meaning. This later became "waxen," before the modern version. Common in the other Germanic languages: German has "wachsen," Low German Saxon and Dutch have "wassen," West Frisian has "waakse," Danish and Norwegian have "vokse," Swedish has "växa," and Icelandic has "vaxa;" all with the same general meaning of "to grow."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Fifty-Five

"Hitler & The German Question" Part One

Hitler was trying to answer the "German Question;" that is, "who is a German?" Interestingly, he "may" have answered it for all time, although not in the way he wanted it answered. Certainly part of the reason why the answer turned out differently than Hitler would have liked, was that his racist ideology went far beyond the bounds about Germans living within a unified nation. His claims for Austria, the Sudetenland, Memel and Danzig met with general acceptance by much of the world, including the European powers; however, by taking in non Germans, such as the Czechs in 1939, and by waging war in Poland and, later Soviet Russia,* with the resultant subjugation of millions of non Germans, much of the rest of the world gradually decided to resist Hitler. At first millions of Soviet subjects welcomed German troops as liberators from Stalinist oppression, but it wasn't long before many of these same people saw themselves becoming part of an enslavement and extermination policy by Hitler, who then planned to resettle Germans in their homelands. Faced with such polices, even Stalin looked good, and most chose to resist Hitler.**

So, we've come a long way in this series of articles on the Germans. We've seen how some ancient Germanic tribes began to slowly develop a common identity as "Germans," but never quite enough to bring about a truly unified nation, as politics and regional interests interfered. The old German Empire, "The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation," was usually too fragmented and loose to be considered a true national state, in spite of its name.*** Then there were the Dutch, for example, who were called by the all inclusive name "Germans" for awhile, only to establish a separate national identity. Then there were the extensive German areas of Switzerland, where to this day people identify as being part of the "German linguistic and cultural community," but don't see themselves as "national Germans." So how did Hitler help to answer the "German Question?"

While Hitler started out trying to unite many German areas in Europe under one national government, the fact is, many of these Germans ended up in far worse condition than before the war, at least in the short term. The end of the terrible Second World War saw millions of Germans living in eastern Europe fleeing the advancing Red Army as it approached their regions. Some Germans who, in recent years, had been resettled from places like Latvia, western Poland or northern Italy barely had time to get accustomed to their new homes before they had to flee for their very lives. Other Germans, whose families had lived in places like East Prussia for centuries, also migrated westwards, away from the Soviets. No one really knows for sure how many Germans were caught up in this massive movement of people in eastern Europe, but by all accounts, it was a very large number, undoubtedly exceeding 10 million, and perhaps closer to 15 million!

The long time German province of East Prussia was divided between the Soviet Union and Poland, then fast becoming a communist-dominated country. There was no need for a new "Polish Corridor," as that entire area, including Danzig, and then even into (German) Pomerania, became a part of Poland. Silesia went to Poland too, as the Polish state literally moved westwards to accommodate the Soviet Union's annexation of eastern Poland. Germans who had remained behind during the war, were physically expelled from Poland in the first few years after the war ended, and they were the lucky ones, as many died in communist prisons or labor camps, adding an ironic twist to their fate.

* Remember, Germany and the Soviet Union had been allies. The Soviets invaded and occupied eastern Poland. The Soviets attacked Finland, eventually taking some territory from that little nation. The Soviets took over Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and large parts of Rumania. The British, and later the Americans, however, had no problem in siding with the Soviets against Hitler. Stalin may have been another murderous loony, but at that moment, Hitler was the greater threat. I'm not sure Hitler ever completely understood that hatred of him is what held together the almost "unnatural alliance" against him, and his talk about that alliance coming apart, while certainly based upon real disagreements and distrust among the Allied powers, never really came close to taking place; that is, until AFTER Hitler's defeat.

** One of the "what ifs" of the Second World War has been, would Hitler have defeated Stalin "if" he had used the discontented elements of the Soviet population against Stalin, instead of treating large segments of the population so ruthlessly?

*** The word "nation" does not always mean "a single, unified political state with clearly defined borders," but also the much broader "people of the same or similar ethnic, and often linguistic, background;" thus we speak in English of the "Iroquois nation," or of the "Sioux nation."

WORD HISTORY:
Wane-Like its relative "want" (see previous "Word History"), this word goes back to Indo European "wen(o)" or "weun," with the general notion of "to leave, to abandon," and by extension, "be lacking, be empty." This gave Old Germanic "wanojan(an)," also with the notion of "be lacking," but more so in the sense "to become lacking, to become smaller, to become less, to shrink." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "wanian," with that same meaning. This later became "wanen," before the modern spelling. More common in modern expressions like "in the waning days of....," or "wax and wane" (for "wax," see next article). Its other close Germanic relatives have all died out; I guess you could say, "usage by these relatives 'waned' until... those forms became totally lacking." Old High German had "wanon," which meant "to grow less, decrease." "Wane" is likely related to "wan," "lacking color, pale," originally meaning "dark, gray;" that is, "without specific color." When I was a kid, it was not uncommon to hear "wan" used for the complexion of someone who was sick.

The German Question, Part One Hundred Fifty-Four

"Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Five/C
"The End of Hitler's Reich" Part Three

In 1945 in western Germany, the Allies gradually pushed back the German defenders, crossing the Rhine River at Remagen in March. By April, a large German force was encircled in the Ruhr industrial region. With Berlin temptingly lying east of their advancing forces, the Allies chose not to risk a drive on the German capital, leaving the job to the Red Army. In Italy, the Allies finally dislodged the stubborn German defenders in northern Italy, and the Germans surrendered there in early May 1945. German forces in Denmark, Norway and the Netherlands also surrendered in May.

In mid April, the long awaited Soviet offensive against Berlin commenced. With tremendous superiority in men and equipment, some Soviet units broke through the beleaguered German line in quick fashion, although not without losses, but the German line directly in front of Berlin along the Oder River held out temporarily, with substantial casualties inflicted upon the Red Army. The German forces held some high ground, and they tenaciously defended it against the Soviet attack, but the inevitable breakthrough came, and the Red Army forces headed for Hitler's capital. The decimated German forces, a mixture of regular army units and Waffen SS forces,* fell back toward Berlin, where Nazi diehards organized Hitler Youth and old men to try to hold the city. While the fighting was very bloody, from street to street, and building to building, the outcome was never in doubt, although Hitler held out hope that a German force south of the city would break through the Russian lines to relieve the capital. This was just another of his fantasies, and the German attack made little headway. The last known pictures of Hitler were taken as he ventured above ground to the Chancellery garden to decorate some Hitler Youth boys for their fighting against the Soviets in the streets of Berlin. There was just no shame by this man or his regime; sending children into combat.

News came that Mussolini had been caught and executed by Italian resistance fighters in northern Italy. The "Duce" and his entourage were then hung upside down from girders for Italians to revile, which they did, often spitting on the dead fascists. For Hitler, already determined not to fall into Soviet hands, Mussolini's death and exhibition convinced him beyond any doubt that suicide was the only way out. He married his long time mistress, Eva Braun (not pronounced "brawn," but rather pretty much like English "brown," its close relative, and with the same meaning), who had arrived from Bavaria. Interestingly, the German public really did not know about her, as that information he been strictly controlled by the Nazi propaganda machine. Hitler dictated his will to his secretary, in which he named a new government to take over after his death. Still the hate spewing psycho, he ranted about how Jews had instigated the war and about how the German people had proven themselves to be too weak by not winning the war. Not long after their marriage, Hitler and Eva retired to his room, and killed themselves. The Russian forces were only a couple of blocks away. The German commanders surrendered Berlin a couple of days later, and German military leaders surrendered for Germany a few days after that. The nightmare, while not over, was beginning to subside.

* The Waffen SS was the "militarized" or "armed" force ("Waffen"="weapon," and is closely related to the English word) part of the vast Nazi SS organization, with a number of its units being considered elite. The early units had all been volunteers and composed completely of Germans, more specifically Reich Germans; that is, Germans born and raised in Germany or Austria. During the early war years, the Waffen SS expanded, and it took volunteers from other countries, most often initially from "Germanic" countries, like the Netherlands, Flanders (see note), Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Later still, it recruited Germans who had not been born in Germany or Austria, called "Volksdeutsche," typically from places like Slovenia, Croatia, Rumania, and later Hungary. Eventually casualties were so high, the SS began drafting men instead of relying strictly upon volunteers. By mid war, the expansion of the Waffen SS included men who were neither German, nor Germanic, but rather Latvian, Estonian, Russian, Italian, French, Walloon (see note), and even Albanian and Bosnian Muslims! (see note 2) The Waffen SS was noted for its toughness and combat prowess, with some exceptions, but it was also known for atrocities, as many of its members were steeped in fanatical Nazi ideology.

(Note 1) Belgium essentially consisted of two main groups of people; the people of Flanders, called Flemings, who spoke a Germanic language, now usually referred to by linguists as a dialect of Dutch, and who comprised roughly 60% of the population, and of the French dialect speaking Walloons, who comprised slightly less than 40% of the population (Germans comprised the remaining small percentage).

(Note 2) Much of Albania and Bosnia had been occupied for quite some time by the Turks, who were Muslim. The Turks forcibly converted some of their subjects to Islam, thus the Muslim population of these areas.

WORD HISTORY:
Want-This common verb traces back to an Indo European base "wen(o)" or "weun," with the general notion of "to leave, to abandon," and by extension, "be lacking, be empty." This gave Old Germanic "wanaton(an)" meaning "to be lacking." This then gave Old Norse "vantr," with the meaning "to lack, to be lacking." English borrowed the word in the late 1100s as "wanten," with the same "lack" meaning. Gradually the notion of "lacking something" took on more of the meaning "desire for something 'lacking,' " and that "desire, wish," meaning has carried through to modern English. From what I could find, Icelandic and Faroese, both North Germanic languages descended from Old Norse, still have "vanta(r)," meaning "lacking." The other Germanic languages, including Old English already had similar words with the same general meaning of "lack(ing)." See "Word History" in next article, "wane," a relative of "want," and "wan" is "likely" a relative from the notion of "lacking color," but its history is more than a little sketchy; thus, I put the quotation marks around "likely." 

The German Question, Part One Hundred Fifty-Three

"Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Five/B
"The End of Hitler's Reich" Part Two

The Soviet offensive of the summer of 1944 took the Red Army to the gates of Warsaw and to the northeastern German border in East Prussia. It also cut off about a quarter of a million German troops in Latvia. Hitler, ever the nutcase, refused to evacuate these troops by air or sea, insisting they were holding a springboard for his next offensive into the northern Soviet Union. Given the state of the German military, it just shows how detached from reality this man was. This large body of German troops continued to hold out in Latvia until the end of the war; thus removing them from the defense of Germany.*

In January 1945, as the "Battle of the Bulge" was winding down, the Red Army launched a massive offensive against German forces in Poland and in the German province of East Prussia. Soviet troops advanced into German East Prussia, besieging the provincial capital of Königsberg. A major breakthrough in Poland sent Red Army troops racing across Poland toward the former Polish Corridor territories, Silesia, Danzig, Posen, and the pre-war German-Polish border. German refugees streamed westward in an attempt to escape the clutches of the Soviets, who were in the mood for vengeance.** Given the weather conditions, the clogged roads, and the speed of the Soviet advance, many of the refugees never made it. Others managed to get to ports along the Baltic where they were transported by ships to territory still under German control.***

When the Soviet offensive halted, the Red Army had reached the Oder River, at one point only about 45 miles from Berlin. The Red Army also entered Auschwitz (in Silesia), seeing first hand the atrocious criminal behavior of the Hitler regime. After the failure of his offensives in the West, Hitler returned to Berlin, where he lived in his extensive underground bunker, rarely going above ground.**** While the Nazi authorities still preached victory and "wonder weapons" ("Wunderwaffen") that would be unleashed to save Germany, Germans awaited the end, although even at this point they had to be careful not to fall victim to Nazi execution squads, which sought out Germans making "defeatist" remarks, or old men who did not take up arms to defend the Fatherland. Incredible! The criminality continued to the end. Extermination camps and execution squads, that's what such fanaticism can bring. It was sheer lunacy! The end of this lunacy was near, but it would not be painless.

* Before the war ended Hitler consented to a few units being transported out of Latvia to help with the defense of Germany.

** A number of Germans, including from the Baltic states and the Soviet Union, had been resettled in former parts of conquered Poland. They now had to pick up and run for their lives.

*** A prewar Nazi Party vacation ship, the "Wilhelm Gustloff," was used to transport refugees and troops out of the former Polish Corridor area via the Baltic Sea. In January 1945, it was loaded (actually overloaded), primarily with refugees, but also with military personnel. A Soviet submarine torpedoed the ship, sinking it. No one knows the actual number of dead, as not all passengers were properly recorded. This was January, and the water was extremely cold, so many of those who survived the explosions died in the frigid water, but nearby German vessels did manage to save some people. Estimates of the dead, however, run to over 9000 (it was a huge ship somewhat on the order of some of today's cruise ships).

**** Hitler's famous bunker was built beneath the Reich Chancellery (Reichskanzlei) complex. There were still functions held within the actual Chancellery, but Allied air raids limited activities there.

WORD HISTORY:
Police-This noun traces back to the Indo European root "pol/pel," with a general meaning of "fortified place on high ground." This gave its Greek^ offspring "polis," which meant "city" (cities were often fortified back then, and 'high ground' offered even more protection). Latin borrowed the notion of "polis" as "politia," but with the meaning "city administration." French had the word from its Latin roots as "police," but it retained the "administration" meaning until the early 1700s, when it came to be used in reference to "law enforcement." English borrowed the word in the 1500s, with the "administration" meaning, and it wasn't until the late 1700s that it began to take on the "law enforcement" meaning, which wasn't complete until the mid 1800s. The other Germanic languages, except Icelandic, borrowed a form of "police," as their word for this law enforcement branch, and German and Low German Saxon have "Polizei," for example.

^ Greek is an Indo European language related to English, but further down the family tree. English has acquired a number of words either directly from Greek, or by way of Latin, which borrowed extensively from Greek, as in the word "polis," above.

The German Question, Part One Hundred Fifty-Two

Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Five/A
"The End of Hitler's Reich" Part One

The Germans withdrew many of their armored units from the front line in western Europe. Why? Allied intelligence reports indicated the Germans were preparing to defend their homeland, and after the tremendous losses in Normandy and the retreat across France, they were trying to replenish their units for a last stand. This proved to be wrong, as Hitler planned a major offensive against the Americans. He hoped for something of a repeat of 1940's stunning victory over France by breaking through the American lines in the Ardennes region,* as German forces had broken through the French lines at that time in the some region, but this time, unlike in 1940, his armies would turn northward to capture the port city of Antwerp, and thus split the Allied forces, with mainly British and Commonwealth forces to the north, and American forces to the south. With the prospect of the war continuing, the Allies might then negotiate, or so the logic seems to have been. If he could get a treaty with the Western Allies, he then could turn all of his forces against the Soviets. While much of this was nonsense, even a straw floating on the surface looks good to a drowning man.

The plan was daring, but essentially unrealistic. First, the Allies had announced previously that they would only accept "unconditional surrender" from Germany. Historians have debated whether this was the proper Allied policy, as it gave the Germans little choice but to resist, and it gave the Nazis lots of fodder for their propaganda machine to keep the German public behind the war. The memory of the armistice in November 1918 and the subsequent Versailles Treaty made Germans wonder what would be in store for them with "unconditional surrender." The Nazis answered the question for Germans by saying the victors would destroy Germany (as if the Nazis weren't already doing so). There's no question in my mind that Nazi leaders absolutely feared for themselves, for once the victorious powers learned of the extermination camps and the multitude of other atrocities committed with the knowledge, support, and often, the direct participation of the various Nazi leaders, severe punishment would be called for. Trials would certainly follow Germany's defeat, and they knew it.

Further, in 1940, German tanks were much lighter and more agile. By late 1944, German tanks, while some of the best produced by any nation during the war, were necessarily much heavier. Why is this important? Because the Ardennes is a hilly, forested area with a limited number of narrow roads. The region is largely countryside, with small villages dotting the landscape. These heavy tanks would have to navigate these narrow roads in order to get through the American lines and then race for Antwerp. Not only that, heavier tanks meant more fuel consumption, and that meant more vehicle traffic along those same narrow roads, as the supply units sought to keep the tanks and motorized units rolling forward. And then too, in 1940, the German army was well trained and fresh. By late 1944, after suffering hundreds of thousands of casualties on all fronts just since summer, German units, especially infantry and motorized infantry units, were badly under strength. Replacements were often quickly rushed to front line units without full training, and a fair number of these men had been transferred from naval units or from the Luftwaffe, where they no longer fulfilled a necessary role, but morale then also became a problem. Additionally, experienced officers at every level had suffered heavy casualties which could not be easily replaced. Unlike 1940, the Luftwaffe did not rule the skies, and Allied aircraft would be able to pounce on moving German columns, especially along those narrow roads mentioned above. All in all, it just wasn't 1940.

One thing was like 1940. Like the French, the Americans "assumed" the Ardennes would be a "quiet sector," due to the difficult terrain. It was lightly held, and some of the units there were just recently arrived in Europe and did not have much combat experience. Other units had experience, perhaps too much so, but just as the German units had to be replenished due to casualties, these American units received replacements, but again, these were not experienced men. Now these forces would have to face a major German offensive, and while it was not 1940 again for the German army, the Germans were still deadly. Also, weather conditions during that time of year would help keep Allied planes from hovering over the battlefield, giving the German forces one less problem, although it turned out to be only a temporary respite.

The attack came on the morning of December 16, 1944. Hitler had moved to a temporary headquarters in western Germany, near Bad Nauheim in Hessen, to oversee the offensive. The German forces penetrated American lines in places, but not all, and the clogged roads proved to be a major headache for their armored and supply units, as I noted above. Thousands of Americans were killed or surrendered, but thousands held out, especially at a key road center, the town of Bastogne. Try though they might, the Germans could not dislodge the Americans, and eventually the offensive sputtered to a halt. The maps showed a huge "bulge" in the American lines where the Germans had broken through, and to the Western Allies the battle thus became known as "The Battle of the Bulge."

In early 1945, the Germans launched another, but smaller, offensive in Alsace, but it too soon broke down. A daring air attack by German fighter planes often flying below radar struck Allied airfields on January 1, 1945, and while there was limited success in destroying aircraft still on the ground, the Luftwaffe suffered further irreplaceable casualties, while the Allies quickly made up for their losses.

* The Ardennes lies largely in eastern Belgium, including the German populated area of Eupen-Malmedy, but also in a portion of northern Luxembourg.

WORD HISTORY:
State (Status)-This noun goes back to the Indo European root "sta," which meant "to stand, be standing." This gave its Latin offspring "stare" (not the same as the English word), also meaning "to stand," which produced the derived "status," meaning "how things stand, condition." Status was borrowed from Latin into English in the late 1600s as a term for a person's "legal standing." It has since expanded in meaning beyond the legal sense to "person's or matter's condition," as in, "What's the status of my online order?" "State," a derivative of "status" ("What's the 'state' of my online order?") was borrowed into English in the 1200s. The idea of "the ruling power of a country, or region, government," came from the idea of "the condition of the nation." This then came to be applied to the "government." The verb form of "state," "to say things," came from the noun, and ties in with the word's basic connection with the meaning "stand;" thus "place words in a standing order," or "put words on the record," and the derived word "statement" still typically carries the notion of being "official" ("The mayor issued a statement"). German also borrowed the word "state" (with the government meaning), as "Staat" (Low German and Dutch use the same spelling). Other Germanic languages have similar words, also from borrowings.

The German Question, Part One Hundred Fifty-One

Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Four/B
"German Heroes: The Plot Against Hitler"

Resistance (German: "Widerstand") to Hitler and the Nazis was not easy for the average German, nor any German for that matter. Spies reported the least little things to Nazi authorities, and this could result in imprisonment or even death for the perpetrator. Here is where fear also took over. By instilling fear in people, Germans were careful in just about everything they said, and some undoubtedly even reported "unwise" statements to the authorities made by neighbors, fearful that if they didn't report it, and the person who made the statement was found out anyhow, they themselves might be implicated. It was a vast circle of fear. It is not easy for most people to oppose their own country, and Germans were much the same, especially once the war started. Still, some searched their souls and decided that resistance to Hitler and criminality was more important than Germany's war effort under the Nazi regime. And again, there was always that fear of being found out. During the war, Sophie Scholl, her brother, Hans, and a friend, Christoph Probst, were arrested for distributing leaflets at the University of Munich urging Germans to resist the Nazis and the war. They were "tried" before a Nazi court (see below) and beheaded shortly after the sentencing. There are several memorials and honors to this young courageous German woman and the other young Germans who tried to fight evil, and who gave their lives doing so. I hope all of you will be interested enough to read more about these German heroes, or to watch the movie, "Sophie Scholl-The Final Days," a German language movie, with English subtitles. (Note added 12/8/22: To be clear, opponents of the Nazi regime were NOT perfect people, and I doubt that any of them will ever be proposed for sainthood. Many had been supportive of Hitler until the war turned against Germany, while others were opposed to Hitler much earlier, especially around the time of the crisis over the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia; but even then, one of the main objections to Hitler was that he was going to get Germany into a war it was not prepared to fight. Some were outright Nazis. So, there were seldom, if ever, any high sounding ideals, rather for military people it was a very simple and practical feeling that the country was not ready to fight a major war. On the other hand, the reality with these people was, they chose to oppose Hitler, at whatever time during his rule, under very dangerous circumstances, and indeed, many paid with their lives for their decision. Would we rather that they had remained loyal to the fanatical furious Führer?)  

The military was in something of a different category. With many German officers coming from the nobility, there was a tendency by these men to look down on some of the Nazi thugs as, well.... THUGS! Highly respected by the German public, officers enjoyed sort of a club of their own; thus, much of the organized resistance to Hitler came from the German military, with some government officials also involved. General Ludwig Beck, one of the early opponents of the regime, resigned prior to the war, when he felt Britain and France were too timid in dealing with Hitler. He may have resigned his military position, but he remained active in conspiracies to remove Hitler from power, including the option of assassinating the Nazi leader. As the war went down hill, military officers knew first hand that Germany stood a good chance of losing the war, no matter what all the Nazi propaganda told the public. They also knew a good deal about atrocities committed by Germans as part of Nazi policy, especially in Russia. Still, they had sworn an oath to Hitler personally, and that oath was not easily overcome by many, even with the knowledge that the oath had been given to a criminal.

There were various plots against Hitler, but the most famous plot came very near to killing him. It took place on July 20, 1944 at Hitler's military headquarters in northeastern Germany, near Rastenburg, in the province of East Prussia. Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg* carried a bomb inside his briefcase into a military conference that day. He was to give a report at the conference, but excused himself "for a phone call" just moments before the bomb went off. The bomb, activated by acid that ate through a trip wire, exploded under the conference table, but Hitler was only injured; one of the other officers having moved Stauffenberg's briefcase to the other side of the stout table support so he could see the maps better.** Stauffenberg left the compound and flew to Berlin fully believing Hitler was dead. Other conspirators in Berlin and elsewhere (including Paris and Vienna), mainly army officers, awaited confirmation that Hitler had indeed been killed. Some Nazi officials were taken into custody in various locations across Germany and in occupied territories. A group of army soldiers was sent to arrest propagandist Joseph Goebbels, but Goebbels cleverly put a call through to Hitler, who told the officer in charge, Major Otto Remer, that he was very much alive, and that the officer and his troops were to arrest the conspirators instead. With Hitler still alive, the plot fell apart. Later that night, Hitler addressed the German nation by radio from his headquarters (the speech had been recorded by Hitler earlier and then transported from the headquarters for broadcast). Secret agent reports showed the attack to be generally unpopular with the German public, which saw the attack as "unpatriotic" in a time of war (fascists LOVE to wrap themselves in patriotism and claim that acts specifically against them are actually acts against the country).

Stauffenberg, Beck, field marshals, generals, mayors and hundreds of others were executed as a consequence. Those arrested were put on "trial" before the Volksgerichtshof, the so called "People's Court,*** led by fanatical Nazi judge, Roland Freisler, who screamed insults at defendants. The proceedings were filmed, as were the resulting executions.

Anyone suspected of having participated in, or having known about, the plot, was arrested. Field Marshal Rommel's name was mentioned by some conspirators under interrogation, although apparently he was not actively involved, and his family later maintained that Rommel wanted Hitler arrested, but did not support killing him. Whatever the case, Rommel, home on leave to recover from injuries,**** was visited by German officers who brought an ultimatum with them. Hitler gave Rommel the choice of killing himself, and being given full military honors, as having died from his wounds, or of being arrested and tried, in which case there would be no guarantees for the safety of his wife and son. Some choice! Rommel chose to take his own life, and Hitler at least kept his word. Rommel was given a hero's funeral, with none other than Field Marshal von Rundstedt, the most respected of German generals, giving a eulogy. Rundstedt, upon later learning the truth about Rommel's death, lamented that he had believed the Nazi story that Rommel had died of his injuries.

As I noted above, please read more or watch documentaries or docu-dramas (one of the more recent ones starring Tom Cruise) to learn more about these German heroes. Historians usually choose to dwell upon all of the negatives about the Germans during the Nazi period, with good reason, and I know I have too in these most recent articles, but we can't forget that there were Germans who tried to stop the madness that had enveloped their country. They saw evil and they tried to stop it. We all should be very proud of them. It is not without reason Germans have placed a memorial plaque at the site of the executions of Stauffenberg and four others of the main conspirators against Hitler. The heading to the plaque reads: "Hier starben für Deutschland" ("Here died for Germany"); it then lists the names of the men: Colonel General Ludwig Beck; General of Infantry Friedrich Olbricht; Colonel Claus Count Schenk Von Stauffenberg; Colonel Albrecht Ritter Mertz Von Quirnheim; First Lieutenant Werner Von Haeften.   

* Stauffenberg, who also carried the noble title "Graf;" that is, "Count," had been severely wounded in North Africa in 1943, losing his right hand, two fingers on his left hand, and his left eye, over which he wore a black patch. No one could claim he hadn't sacrificed for his country, but he made the ultimate sacrifice by opposing Hitler, as he was executed in Berlin early on July 21, 1944, on orders of General Fromm, the commander of the Replacement Army, which was headquartered in Berlin.

** The military conferences normally took place in a concrete bunker, but it was being refurbished and strengthened against potential air attack. On July 20th the conference was held in a wooden conference room, with the windows open, due to the heat of July. Various experts have noted that Hitler, and probably all present, likely would have died if the conference had been in the usual concrete bunker, as the force of the blast would not have easily escaped, which is what happened with the wooden conference room and open windows. As it happened, four people died out of more than 20 in the conference room, and Hitler only suffered some contusions and bruises, plus a damaged eardrum.

*** The "People's Court" was a Nazi invention. It was set up early in Hitler's rule to get around the legal court system in place under the Weimar Republic. It was truly a "Nazi court system," and few people were ever acquitted after going before this court, with the verdicts in most cases, being determined beforehand.

**** Rommel was the commander of a German army group in France. In July of 1944, during the Normandy campaign, his staff car was strafed by an Allied aircraft. The car crashed and Rommel suffered severe injuries, especially to his skull and face.

WORD HISTORY:
Plot-This word is a mystery word. It appears in English circa 1000, although that doesn't necessarily mean it didn't exist in spoken English before that time. Where it came from is unknown. Its recorded history shows that initially it meant "parcel of land," a meaning still present in English to this day. From this meaning also came "a plan of grounds, a map." In this meaning, the "plan" part became the part that stuck, and from the notion of "calculating the dimensions for a map or sketch," we have its meaning, "scheme, plan" and also, "a story line, the major plan of a book or script." The verb was derived from the noun in the 1500s. It appears the English word was reinforced by French "complot," which had the general meaning "plans joined together (often secretly)." This was borrowed from French in the 1500s, and its ultimate origins are also unknown, but it goes back to "compeloter," with the meanings "com"="combine," and "peloter"="ball;" thus "combine into a ball, put together." In English, undoubtedly under the influence of the native word "plot," the "com" prefix, denoting "combined, joining," was dropped from the French borrowing. German too borrowed this word from French, as "Komplott," and it means "a plot, a scheme."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Fifty

Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Four/A
"The End Draws Near"

While Germany was under heavy aerial bombardment and its military was in retreat in much of Russia by mid 1944,* the fact is, Hitler still controlled much of Europe, but that was about to change. The Allies captured Rome on June 4, 1944 and the Germans retreated to northern Italy where they again dug in and held the Allies back until near the end of the war.**

Along the coast of western Europe the Germans awaited the Allied invasion. In early June, terrible weather conditions stretching from Britain and into northwestern France convinced German leaders that the Allies could not launch an invasion at that moment. In a daring decision during a respite in the bad weather, General Eisenhower, the overall head of Allied military forces, gave the order for the invasion to proceed. On June 6, 1944 Allied forces landed in the Normandy area of France. Field Marshal Rommel, the German commander in that area, away in Germany for his wife's birthday, a decision taken because of the bad weather, rushed back to France to lead the German defense, but any chance of preventing the Allies from gaining a major foothold had already been lost, and the Germans shifted plans to trying to contain the Allied invasion. After nearly two months of bloody fighting, the Allied armies broke out of Normandy and headed for the German and Belgian borders. Paris fell to the Allies in late August. Meanwhile in southern France, the Allies carried out a second landing and, facing much less determined resistance than in Normandy, advanced northward toward Germany.

In Russia, just a couple of weeks after the Allied invasion of France, the Soviets launched a massive offensive against German forces located primarily in White Russia (Belorussia, now largely Belarus). The Soviets overwhelmed the badly outnumbered Germans and raced for Poland. By the time the offensive halted, the Red Army stood just outside of Warsaw, and the Germans had suffered somewhere between 300,000 and 400,000 killed, wounded or captured. In Warsaw, Polish freedom fighters rose against the German occupation, expecting help from the nearby Red Army, but the Soviets did nothing, and the Germans ruthlessly crushed the uprising.***

Further, the Red Army broke into Rumania (also spelled "Romania"), a German ally, and that country surrendered in August, and then declared war on Germany. Finland, another German ally, signed an armistice in September. Bulgaria, another German ally, also declared war on Germany under Soviet pressure.****

Back in western Europe, the Allied drive toward Germany began to sputter, as supply lines lengthened and German resistance stiffened. In an attempt to bring the war to a conclusion before winter, the Allies tried a daring operation in mid September. They carried out large paratroop operations in the Netherlands (still German occupied), dropping thousands of paratroops behind German lines near the Dutch-German border. A ground offensive was launched in conjunction with these airborne operations in the hope of gaining a quick and easier route into Germany's Ruhr industrial region. The idea was, with the Ruhr captured, the German war machine could not function effectively. The operation failed, as the Germans reacted quickly and decisively, and the Allies suffered thousands of casualties. While fighting elsewhere along the German border areas continued, there was a bit of a lull as winter approached. That would soon change, as Hitler had plans.

Next... "German Heroes: The Plot Against Hitler"

* The siege of Leningrad had been broken by Soviet forces in January, 1944.

** After his rescue by the Germans in September 1943, Mussolini was put in charge of the German occupied part of Italy, which was called "The Italian Social Republic." He raised his own military forces, used primarily to combat a tough Italian resistance movement that had developed in the mountainous north. Essentially Italy was in civil war.

*** Stalin, every bit as plotting as Hitler, preferred not to have Polish forces outside of his control, as the forces in Warsaw were; thus he let the Germans destroy these "free" Polish forces. Stalin had his own plans for post-war Poland, with the Soviet Union taking much of eastern Poland, and with the remainder of Poland being pro-Soviet.

**** Bulgaria is an interesting case. Although an Axis ally, Bulgaria had never declared war on the Soviet Union. When the Soviet armies approached the country in early September 1944, the Soviets simply declared war on Bulgaria and entered the country. The Bulgarians then declared war on Germany. 

WORD HISTORY:
Stalag-This word for a German prisoner-of-war camp was borrowed into English during the World War Two era. It is really a contraction of "Stammlager," a compound, with both parts having closely related words in English: For "stem" see:

http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2012/05/making-choice-part-one.html

For "lager/lair" see: http://pontificating-randy.blogspot.com/2011/02/german-question-part-eighty-one.html

Gestapo-Another word borrowed into English during the Nazi era, it is a contraction of "Geheime Staatspolizei;" that is, "Secret State Police." (Note: The German adjective "geheim" is a word derived from "Heim," a close relative of English "home." Interestingly, German "geheim" (the noun for "a secret" is "(das) Geheimnis") didn't become common with the meaning "secret" until the 1600s!^ The idea behind the meaning goes to your home being private and personal; thus, eventually, the word developed the meaning "something kept private;" thus, "secretive." English "homely" is a word closely related to German "heimlich," another adjective meaning "secretive, having to do with things done in private." While the word "homely" originally meant "of the home, personal, familiar," it also later developed a meaning of "plain, unattractive," and even "ugly," that meaning is now used more in American English (Canadian?), but like its German cousin "heimlich," it also meant "private, personal."  

^ German "geheim" also was borrowed by Dutch, and seemingly also West Frisian, as both languages have "geheim," while Low German has "geheem," but whether this "may" be an original development that simply took the "secret" meaning. 

The German Question, Part One Hundred Forty-Nine

Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Three/B
"The Greatest Shame of German History"

Not long after the Nazis took power, the first concentration camps were set up. They were prison camps, often for political prisoners like communists, or opponents of the regime, real or perceived. Since German Jews were seen by the Nazis as enemies of the state, some Jews were also incarcerated in these camps during the earlier years of Nazi rule. Prisoners led a wretched existence, often doing forced labor, where they were mistreated and malnourished. Some were executed for any number of reasons. When the war started, the first country to fall, Poland, contained a large Jewish population, although initially, a good number of these people lived in what became the Soviet annexed areas, as much of this territory had belonged to the former Russian Empire, where Jews had been more concentrated in western Russia.* When Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, special execution units, called "Einsatzgruppen" (literally "action groups")** followed right behind the army forces to round up and execute Jews, Communist officials, and anyone perceived as a potential threat to the German occupation. Tens of thousands of men, women and children were executed throughout the western regions of the Soviet Union.

In Germany, German Jews had dwindled in number since the 1933 appointment of Hitler as chancellor. Many had emigrated, although some did not go far enough, as they crossed into other European countries soon to be taken over by the Nazis. Still others had been put into concentration camps or had already been killed by the time of the early war years. With the occupation of Poland and large areas of the Soviet Union, the Nazis then had control over millions of European Jews, and they planned their destruction, as a businessman would plan to increase production in his factory. It is absolutely mind boggling, and no matter how much actual newsreel footage I've seen over the years, or how many books and articles I've read, it is still difficult to get my mind around these terrible events. And by the Germans! (Although often aided by non-Germans.) Nothing I write here can even scratch the surface of this disturbing subject, which is about sheer evil.

The overall plan for the extermination of European Jews was under the control of Heinrich Himmler's "SS."*** In various parts of Europe, but especially in Poland, camps were set up with the purpose of using Jews (Gypsies were also a major target of Nazi racial theories) for labor purposes, but with the ultimate aim of killing them; that is, if they hadn't already been worked to death. Those deemed unfit for work were killed, often within just a short time after their arrival at a camp. The organization for transporting Jews from across Europe to these death camps came under one SS officer, Adolf Eichmann (he had the right first name, if you get my point).**** Of all of the camps set up in Germany and throughout Europe during Nazi rule, "Auschwitz" was the most notorious, and millions died there. Rooms were made to look like shower areas, but once inside, victims were locked in, and poison gas canisters were dropped inside, killing everyone. The bodies were then burned in huge ovens, "crematoria." Any and all valuables were confiscated from these helpless people. Even when dead, gold or silver fillings were extracted.

Amidst all of the hatred and death, there were still some acts of heroism, and if you haven't seen "Schindler's List," please do so; you will never forget it. Above all, DON'T BE A RACIST OR A HATER!

* This area was known as the "Pale" in Russia. It was the western part of the Russian Empire where Jews were permitted to settle and live on a permanent basis beginning in the late 1700s. Most Russian Jews were not permitted to live east of the Pale (in interior Russia) for any major period of time, but there were exceptions.

** The "Einsatzgruppen" were part of the "SD," the initials of the "Sicherheitsdienst" ("Security Service), which was a branch of the SS.

*** Himmler was a Bavarian, born in Munich, and he joined the Nazi Party in the early 1920s.

**** Eichmann was born in Germany, but his family moved to Linz, Austria when he was just a child. Interestingly, besides the shared first name, Hitler, who was considerably older than Eichmann, had lived in and around Linz as a child, too, and he always considered the city to be his home town, so much so, that he had grand plans to make Linz into one of the primary cities of Nazism, if they had won the war.

WORD HISTORY:
Camp (noun and verb)-This is another one of those words with an uncertain ancient history. What is known is, it goes back to Latin "campus,"^ with the general meaning "open area or field," which then progressed to "field of military contest, battlefield." Old Germanic borrowed the word as "kampan," with this "contest, battle" meaning. This then gave Old English "camp," but with that same "contest" meaning. This also gave Old High German "champf," which then later became "Kampf," meaning "battle, struggle," still in use today, and it is part of the title of Hitler's book, "Mein Kampf," covered earlier in this series on "The German Question." The same word also gave German the verb form "kämpfen," meaning "to fight." English "camp" then got a bit of a twist in meaning via French "camp" (also from the Latin source) in the 1500s, this being a "field used for military training and lodging," which then later in English also came to be applied to non-military situations, and both military and non military senses are still used today.^^ The "contest" meaning died out in English. The verb form, as in, "we'll camp by the river," came from the noun during the 1500s. So here we have English and German with essentially the same word, "camp/Kampf," and both from the same source, but with different meanings; the German word retaining much of the original "contest" notion. By the way, Italian has "campo," obviously from its Latin roots, and it means "field." 

^ "Camp" is related to "campaign" and to "champion" (also the shortened form "champ"), Latin-derived words borrowed by English from French, and to "campus," a word English borrowed directly from Latin.  

^^ Generally, the modern meaning in English means, "a place in the rural countryside, often, but not always, near a lake, river or stream, where people congregate for some temporary purpose, like hunting, fishing, vacationing, recreation, or some educational or instructional purpose, often with tents, cabins, huts or other type of basic shelter. This meaning came from an older meaning in English based around "a place to temporarily stay ("put up/set up camp") to provide shelter to sleep and to fix food around a fire, called a campfire." 

The German Question, Part One Hundred Forty-Eight

Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Three/A
"The German Home Front"

Rationing in Germany was fairly limited during the early years of the war. With Germany in control of much of Europe, goods from other areas poured in for German consumers, and this all served to keep most Germans behind the war effort. The tight control of the nation by the Nazis did not allow much criticism of the regime, especially of Hitler, but it is interesting to note that in a film about Frederick the Great, released in 1942 and sanctioned by Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels,* a group of German public officials approach the king's aide and tell him the public is complaining and grumbling about the war (it is set during the 1760s and the Seven Years War, covered earlier in this series here). The aide tells them "that is just the nature of things," and that the soldiers complain too, and that Frederick is aware of the complaints and understands them. Then, however, comes the warning. One of the officials says "people no longer believe in victory," and the aide declares this is "high treason."

In early 1942 the head of German war production, Fritz Todt, was killed in a plane crash. He was replaced by Hitler's former architect Albert Speer. Speer organized German industry to produce tremendous amounts of armaments, but with the aid of slave laborers, often, but not always, from eastern Europe. In spite of the Allied bombing attacks on German industry and cities, German factory output rose, reaching its peak in mid 1944.

Allied bombing attacks took their toll, but just as German air attacks on Britain had failed to destroy British morale, such was the case with the Germans. The Luftwaffe exacted a terrible price on Allied aircraft and pilots over Germany and parts of occupied Europe, but Allied production of aircraft was able to make good all of the losses. One of the biggest air attacks came on Hamburg during a one week period in the summer of 1943. British planes bombed the city by night and American planes bombed by day. Civilian casualties amounted to some 75,000, with about 40,000 of those being killed. Most of Germany's large and medium size cities were heavily bombed during the war, and Berlin itself became a major target from 1944 onward.

The surrender of the German forces at Stalingrad brought shock to the German public, and reports by Nazi officials and agents (spies) noted the German public's disheartened mood. Joseph Goebbels took to the podium at the Berlin Sports Palace (Berliner Sportpalast) in mid February 1943, just a couple of weeks after the surrender at Stalingrad. The speech was broadcast on radio and much of it was filmed for later showing as newsreel shorts in movie theaters. The crux of the speech was a series of questions Goebbels posed to the approximately 20,000 people in attendance. He so roused the passions of the audience, that his main question, "Do you want total war,"** was answered by a thunderous "Ja," and by chants of the familiar Nazi slogan, "Fuehrer command, we follow!" ("Führer befiehl, wir folgen!") If I remember correctly, I've read somewhere that Hitler was listening to the speech on the radio at his military headquarters. So German public opinion ticked up, but perseverance alone would not win the war.

Meanwhile, at camps in Germany and elsewhere, especially in occupied Poland, thousands of people were being killed EVERY DAY! Not because they were enemy soldiers or because they were spies, but they were killed just because of who they were.

Next..."The Greatest Shame of German History"

* The movie, "Der Grosse König" ("The Great King"), is available on DVD with English subtitles. It is well worth seeing, with a good deal of historical accuracy, and some stirring battle scenes, with bombardments, infantry assaults, cavalry charges and all, but be aware, there is also a good deal of propaganda in it, and it is only partially about Frederick the Great, as Frederick is often symbolic of Hitler in the movie, more obviously near the end.

** German: "Wollt ihr den totalen Krieg?"

WORD HISTORY:
Storm-This word is closely related to "stir," a word from the Germanic roots of English that essentially means "to disturb," as a verb, and to mean "disturbance" as a noun; as the weather meaning of "storm" undoubtedly came from the notion of "disturbance in the skies, weather disturbance, agitated weather." Old Germanic had "sturmaz," with the basic notion of "agitate, disturb." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "storm," which has since remained the same. The word, usually the verb form, also came to mean "full attack, assault," as in "storm the enemy position." This meaning came about in the 1600s, and as it also has this same meaning in some other Germanic languages, it is unclear to me if English developed this extended meaning of the word itself, or borrowed it from a "relative." Further was the meaning "rage with anger," as in "He stormed about the room." Common in the other Germanic languages: German has "Sturm" ("stürmen" is the verb form), Dutch has "storm," Icelandic has "stormur," Swedish & Norwegian have "storm," Danish has "storm, storme," Frisian has "stoarm," and Low German Saxon has "Störm."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Forty-Seven

Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Two/G
"Germany in Retreat"

Just two months after the Axis surrender in North Africa, the Allies invaded the large Italian island of Sicily. Italian resistance was sporadic, at best, and essentially collapsed, but German forces on the island cost the Allies heavy causalities, before successfully evacuating to the Italian mainland. During the fighting for Sicily, Mussolini was deposed and then arrested. He eventually was held in a ski resort hotel on a mountain, Gran Sasso, in central Italy. Hitler ordered a special operation to rescue Il Duce ("the leader"), and in September German paratroopers and commandos landed by gliders near the resort and freed Mussolini.*

The new Italian government assured the Germans they would remain true to the alliance with Germany, but the Germans correctly suspected otherwise, and the Italians were in negotiations to surrender to the Allies. The Allies invaded parts of southern Italy in early September, and the Italian surrender was announced. Hitler already had military units in Italy, and he sent more troops to disarm the Italian military and to establish a front against an Allied advance northward. It was an agonizingly slow and bloody process for the Allies to capture Rome, and the German holding action was highly effective.

In Greece and Yugoslavia, strong resistance forces, many with communist affiliations, had developed against the Axis occupation, causing the Germans and Italians to use scarce troops and resources to try to truly secure these areas; something they were unsuccessful in doing.** The threat of Allied invasion, especially of Greece, also kept Axis forces tied down. When Italy surrendered, German forces ruthlessly disarmed and took custody of Italian troops, and many Italians were killed. Some Italians, however, remained committed to the German side for the rest of the war, while others joined the resistance movements.

In western Europe, the Germans continued to fortify the coastal areas against an expected Allied invasion. When 1943 passed without an invasion, the Germans believed 1944 would be the decisive year. Bunkers, coastal obstacles, barbed wire and massive reinforced concrete artillery emplacements lined the areas deemed most likely for the Allied invasion force. The guessing game continued for the Germans, as they tried to learn the exact location where Allied troops would try to come ashore and gain a foothold.

In Russia, after the disaster at Stalingrad, the German forces regained their balance, and Hitler decided to attack. While most of his military advisers opposed the new offensive, Hitler went ahead with the assault anyway. The German forces, especially armor, had made a remarkable recovery, and the Germans threw their forces against the Soviets near the city of Kursk. When the heaviest combat operations had ended in the spring of 1943, a large "bulge" remained in the Soviet lines. The German plan called for attacking at the base of this bulge on both sides (pinching it off), thus cutting off substantial Soviet forces. The Soviets were ready, and the clash of major forces took place in early July 1943. The German offensive failed, and the Soviets launched their own offensive against the now weakened German front. The German "home front" was shaken by the mounting casualties and defeats.

* The German military did some extraordinary things during the war; but they were serving such an evil nutcase.

** Bulgaria, part of the Axis alliance, also supplied troops to help garrison the area, as did Croatia, which had its own army and fascist militia in the aftermath of Yugoslavia's defeat in 1941.

WORD HISTORY:
Room-This noun goes back to Indo European "reu/rew/row," with the basic notion of "open space." This gave its Old Germanic offspring "ruman," with essentially the same meaning, "open space, space." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "rum," with a long "u" sound, with the same meaning. Later it became "roum," before the modern spelling. During the late 1300s it developed the sense "cargo space inside of a ship," which then expanded in the 1400s to "individual spaces inside of a house or building," which from then on became the predominant meaning in English. The verb form, meaning "to occupy a place for residency" or "to share a living space with someone," didn't come along until about the early 1800s. English still retains the "space" meaning when we say "make room for;" that is, "clear space for." Common in the other Germanic languages, although most retain the "space" notion as the primary meaning: German has "Raum," which tends to be used more for "space," as well as "room" (German "Weltraum" means "outer space"). It also can mean "vicinity" or "region," as in "im Raum Berlins," "in the Berlin region, in the Berlin vicinity." Hitler's term, "Lebensraum," meant "living space," or "living room," but not "living room" in the English language sense of "one of the main rooms in a dwelling, often used for entertainment, including for guests." Low German Saxon has "Ruum," Frisian has what now "seems" to be the rarely used "Rüm," Dutch has "ruim," Danish and Swedish have "rum," Norwegian has "rom," and Icelandic has "rúm."

The German Question, Part One Hundred Forty-Six

"Hitler Rules Germany" Part Two/C
"Germany In World War Two" Part Two/F/3
"Germany Versus the Soviet Union" Part Three
"The German Tide Ebbs"

On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii (then a U.S. territory, not a state). President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Congress agreed to a declaration of war on Japan. Roosevelt had been trying to help Britain as much as possible, without getting the U.S. directly involved in the war, by sending material aid to the British. Before Pearl Harbor, the American public was split over possible American involvement in the war. Hitler solved the issue of American participation in the war against Germany by declaring war on the United States on December 11 at a session of the Reichstag. Always the racist, Hitler didn't seem to realize that he was bringing a formidable foe into the war against him. Various statements indicated he believed Americans could not fight well, because they were such a mixture of ethnic and racial groups. Such nonsense helped to hasten his demise. Mussolini followed suit with a declaration of war by Italy on the United States. It wasn't long before heavily armed convoys were transporting American troops and war equipment to Britain.

In North Africa, Rommel's German and Italian forces faced a new British commander, Bernard Montgomery, and "Monty" launched a major offensive against Rommel in late October 1942, in what became the last part of the El Alamein battle. After terrible losses of men and equipment, and in spite of Hitler's order to hold his positions, Rommel ordered a retreat. Thousands of Axis prisoners were taken by the Allies. Meanwhile, the Americans and British forces landed troops in the French North African colonies of French Morocco and Algeria, which were behind Rommel's retreating army. Hitler and Mussolini rushed troops to Tunisia, another French colony sandwiched between Rommel's retreating forces in Libya and the Allied forces which had just landed. French resistance to the landings was relatively light, and the struggle then centered on Tunisia. While Rommel inflicted a punishing defeat on the Americans at a place called "Kasserine Pass" in February 1943, the German and Italian forces surrendered in May 1943. This now left Italy vulnerable to attack.

In the Soviet Union, Hitler's stalled capture of Stalingrad gave the Soviets time to gather fresh troops north and south of the city. In mid November 1942 they struck, breaking through primarily overwhelmed Rumanian lines and trapping a large German, and a smaller Rumanian force, in and around Stalingrad. By early February 1943, the remaining encircled forces surrendered to the Soviets. During the overall Soviet operations that winter, the whole southern sector of the Axis front was pummeled, and a Hungarian army and an Italian army, besides two Rumanian armies and a German army were essentially destroyed. The Germans did not stabilize the front until February/March 1943, but they had lost virtually all of their gains from the previous summer. Although there would still be much intense fighting, Hitler's days were numbered.

WORD HISTORY:
Ebb-This word, closely related to "off," goes back to Indo European "apo," which meant "off, away (from)." This gave Old Germanic "ab," with the same meaning, and from that Old Germanic developed "abjon," with the meaning "tide flowing away, tide flowing 'off' from shore;" thus, "low tide." This gave Old English (Anglo-Saxon) "ebba," which later dropped the ending "a." The figurative use to mean "decline of someone or something" was already in use in the 1300s. There are various forms present in the other Germanic languages: German has "Ebbe," Low German Saxon has "Ebben," West Frisian has "ebbe," Dutch "eb," Icelandic has "ebbið" (=ebbith), Swedish has "ebb," Norwegian has "ebbe" and Danish has "ebbe." Some of the Germanic languages still retain a verb form, English being one of those, and in Old English it was "ebbian." Dutch has "ebben."